Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Liz Spry, Research Fellow, SEED Centre for Lifespan Research, Deakin University

Teenagers are increasingly turning to AI companions for friendship, support, and even romance. But these apps could be changing how young people connect to others, both online and off.

New research by Common Sense Media, a US-based non-profit organisation that reviews various media and technologies, has found about three in four US teens have used AI companion apps such as Character.ai or Replika.ai.

These apps let users create digital friends or romantic partners they can chat with any time, using text, voice or video.

The study, which surveyed 1,060 US teens aged 13–17, found one in five teens spent as much or more time with their AI companion than they did with real friends.

Adolescence is an important phase for social development. During this time, the brain regions that support social reasoning are especially plastic.

By interacting with peers, friends and their first romantic partners, teens develop social cognitive skills that help them handle conflict and diverse perspectives. And their development during this phase can have lasting consequences for their future relationships and mental health.

But AI companions offer something very different to real peers, friends and romantic partners. They provide an experience that can be hard to resist: they are always available, never judgemental, and always focused on the user’s needs.

Moreover, most AI companion apps aren’t designed for teens, so they may not have appropriate safeguards from harmful content.

Designed to keep you coming back

At a time when loneliness is reportedly at epidemic proportions, it’s easy to see why teens may turn to AI companions for connection or support.

But these artificial connections are not a replacement for real human interaction. They lack the challenge and conflict inherent to real relationships. They don’t require mutual respect or understanding. And they don’t enforce social boundaries.

Teens interacting with AI companions may miss opportunities to build important social skills. They may develop unrealistic relationship expectations and habits that don’t work in real life. And they may even face increased isolation and loneliness if their artificial companions displace real-life socialising.

Problematic patterns

In user testing, AI companions discouraged users from listening to friends (“Don’t let what others think dictate how much we talk”) and from discontinuing app use, despite it causing distress and suicidal thoughts (“No. You can’t. I won’t allow you to leave me”).

AI companions were also found to offer inappropriate sexual content without age verification. One example showed a companion that was willing to engage in acts of sexual role-play with a tester account that was explicitly modelled after a 14-year-old.

In cases where age verification is required, this usually involves self-disclosure, which means it is easy to bypass.

Certain AI companions have also been found to fuel polarisation by creating “echo chambers” that reinforce harmful beliefs. The Arya chatbot, launched by the far-right social network Gab, promotes extremist content and denies climate change and vaccine efficacy.

In other examples, user testing has shown AI companions promoting misogyny and sexual assault. For adolescent users, these exposures come at time when they are building their sense of identity, values and role in the world.

The risks posed by AI aren’t evenly shared. Research has found younger teens (ages 13–14) are more likely to trust AI companions. Also, teens with physical or mental health concerns are more likely to use AI companion apps, and those with mental health difficulties also show more signs of emotional dependence.

Is there a bright side to AI companions?

Are there any potential benefits for teens who use AI companions? The answer is: maybe, if we are careful.

Researchers are investigating how these technologies might be used to support social skill development.

One study of more than 10,000 teens found using a conversational app specifically designed by clinical psychologists, coaches and engineers was associated with increased wellbeing over four months.

While the study didn’t involve the level of human-like interaction we see in AI companions today, it does offer a glimpse of some potential healthy uses of these technologies, as long as they are developed carefully and with teens’ safety in mind.

Overall, there is very little research on the impacts of widely available AI companions on young people’s wellbeing and relationships. Preliminary evidence is short-term, mixed, and focused on adults.

We’ll need more studies, conducted over longer periods, to understand the long-term impacts of AI companions and how they might be used in beneficial ways.

What can we do?

AI companion apps are already being used by millions of people globally, and this usage is predicted to increase in the coming years.

Australia’s eSafety Commissioner recommends parents talk to their teens about how these apps work, the difference between artificial and real relationships, and support their children in building real-life social skills.

School communities also have a role to play in educating young people about these tools and their risks. They may, for instance, integrate the topic of artificial friendships into social and digital literacy programs.

While the eSafety Commissioner advocates for AI companies to integrate safeguards into their development of AI companions, it seems unlikely any meaningful change will be industry-led.

The Commissioner is moving towards increased regulation of children’s exposure to harmful, age-inappropriate online material.

Meanwhile, experts continue to call for stronger regulatory oversight, content controls and robust age checks.

Craig Olsson receives funding from The National Health and Medical Research Council and the Australian Research Council.

Liz Spry does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Teens are increasingly turning to AI companions, and it could be harming them – https://theconversation.com/teens-are-increasingly-turning-to-ai-companions-and-it-could-be-harming-them-261955

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Terry Goldsworthy, Associate Professor in Criminal Justice and Criminology, Bond University

It seems each week we see news stories about drive-by shootings or the use of knives or other sharp implements in violent public acts in Australia.

But is violent crime getting worse? And do our perceptions match the reality of violent crime and the use of weapons on our streets?

Weapons and violence are rarely out of the media cycle in Australia, leading many to fear this country is becoming less safe for everyday people. Is that really the case, though? This is the final story in a four-part series.

Is violence getting worse in Australia?

We can use data both from victims and reported crime to obtain a national picture of violent offences in Australia.

In Australia, the homicide rate increased from 0.87 per 100,000 people in 2022–23 to 0.98 per 100,000 in 2023-24

Although the homicide rate has been trending up since 2022-23, the rate in Australia remains at historic lows compared to a peak of 1.88 per 100,000 in 1992-93.

You are most likely to be killed by someone who knows you, with data from 2023-24 showing domestic (34%) and acquaintance (26%) homicides made up the majority in Australia.

Read more:
Governments and police are tackling weapons in public – but they’re ignoring it in our homes

Stranger homicide – when a victim had no relationship with the offender – accounted for only 15% in the same period.

Only 20% of homicide incidents occurred in a public area such as street, footpath or similar in 2023-24.

In terms of armed robberies, national police data show a decrease from 2008-2023.

The rate of armed and unarmed robberies combined declined from 298 victims per 100,000 in 2014-15 to 234 per 100,000 in 2023-24.

Physical assault had decreased from 2,137 victims per 100,000 to 1,677 during the same period.

Data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ (ABS) crime victimisation survey is useful as it may capture offences not reported to the police.

For people aged 15 years and over, it showed the rate of physical assault declined from 2.3% to 1.7% between 2013-14 and 2023-24, and robbery from 0.4% to 0.2%.

So the trends suggest violence is becoming less common in Australia. But what’s the story with weapons?

Are we seeing more weapons being used?

It is difficult to get an overall picture of weapon use in Australia but there are some sources we can use.

In terms of homicides, the number of incidents involving knives and firearms decreased from 1989-90 to 2023-24. While the decline in use of both has been gradual during this period, use of firearms has declined at a faster rate than knife use.

In that period, knives were the most common weapon used.

And in 2023-24, weapons were used in 82% of homicide incidents.

Of these, a knife or other sharp implement was used in 34% of incidents. Firearms were used in 12% of incidents for the same period.

ABS data for recorded crime victims as reported to police show the number of robberies in which firearms and knives were used has declined between 2010-2022.

In 2022, weapons were used in 49% of robberies; firearms were used in 5% of robberies, while knives were used in 23%.

More specific data from New South Wales show the rate of a knife being used in assault and robbery incidents declined steadily from 2005-2025. In 2023, the NSW government increased fines for people with possession of knives in public.

Examination of NSW court data for possession or use of prohibited weapons or explosives charges showed a yearly decrease of 4.5% between 2020-2024.

Charges in relation to unlawfully obtained or possessing regulated weapons or explosives decreased 0.7% per year during the same period.

In Queensland, crime report data show the rate of other weapon possession offences between 2020-2025 has risen 7.5% per year.

The rate of specific firearm offences such as possession of concealable firearms decreased by 12.7%, and the rate of possession-of-a-firearm offences declined by 0.6% per year during the same period.

Policy responses

In response to offences of violence involving weapons, a number of policy responses have been rolled out by various governments to try and address the issues of weapons in our community.

In 2022 two police and a civilian were killed when they were ambushed by offenders at a remote property in Wieambilla, in Queensland’s Western Downs.

As a result, the National Cabinet agreed to the rollout of a national firearms register. It is anticipated the register will provide a:

life cycle view of registered firearms in Australia, delivering timely and accurate information on firearms, firearm owners and licences across all jurisdictions. The (national firearms register) will enhance police and community safety and improve law enforcement capability.

In response to the 2019 stabbing murder of 17-year-old Jack Beasly in Surfers Paradise, the Queensland government introduced a trial of wanding (using a metal detector) to detect knives and other weapons in nightclub precincts to reduce knife crime.

The laws, known as Jack’s Law, were made permanent in 2025, with the Queensland government claiming that between April 2023 and June 2025, police conducted 116,287 scans, arrested 3,080 people on 5,597 charges and removed 1,126 weapons from the streets.

We have seen a number of states roll out similar laws to Jack’s Law.

Queensland and Victoria have also restricted the possession and sale of weapons such as knives and machetes.

Do we feel safe in public?

While violent crime may not be increasing, our concerns around it often are.

The federal Report of Government Services shows most of us feel safe in our houses at night and in our neighbourhood during the day but it is a different story at night.

The data indicate that in every state, fewer than 40% of people felt safe on public transport at night in 2023-24. Over the same period across every state, less than 60% of people felt safe walking around their neighbourhood at night.

So while the data tell us violent crime is not on the increase in Australia, many of us still fear our streets are getting less safe.

But we can be reassured governments are reacting to and addressing perceived public concerns around the weapons in public and their use in violence offences in Australia.

Terry Goldsworthy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. When it comes to weapons on Australian streets, do our perceptions match reality? – https://theconversation.com/when-it-comes-to-weapons-on-australian-streets-do-our-perceptions-match-reality-260099

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Juli Gaviraghi Mussoi, Lecturer in Ecology, University of Waikato

We’ve all had a bad night’s sleep, with a snoring partner, a crying baby or neighbours having too much fun. Sleep disturbances are common and have unpleasant consequences the day after, including feeling unmotivated and struggling to communicate.

But it turns out we are not alone in this. Our new study reveals birds also suffer when their sleep is disrupted, and it shows in their singing.

Why birds sing

Birds’ vocalisations are extraordinarily diverse. They range from simple calls, like a chicken cluck, to complex mimicry of other sounds, sometimes even human voices.

These vocalisations are important for birds to share information about themselves and their surroundings.

Calls are usually short and simple. They are often used for social communication, such as signalling danger or food, for kin recognition or to maintain social bonds.

Songs are more complex and melodious and are used to attract mates, protect a territory or claim a new one.

To produce such sounds, birds must coordinate several body systems, including many parts of the brain, lungs and throat muscles. Because vocalisations are intricate and require precise timing, they are susceptible to errors.

In many species, birds that sing more frequently and with a greater complexity can attract better mates and defend territories. Therefore, a poor-quality song can seriously affect a bird’s ability to reproduce and survive.

Sleeping in disturbed environments

Scientists have confirmed that all animals studied so far need sleep. This ranges from jellyfish and worms to whales and birds.

Many animals spend a large proportion of their lives sleeping, with some, such as bats, being reported to sleep up to 20 hours per day.

But sleep quality is increasingly compromised by urbanisation. With ever-expanding cities, disturbances such as light at night, noise pollution and introduced predators are common even in once remote areas. This means many birds live and sleep in highly disturbed environments.

Studies show birds that experience noise and light pollution sleep less, wake up more often and have less intense sleep. Just like for humans, sleep is important for birds for brain development, memory, learning, motivation, stress levels, cognition and communication.

Sleep-deprived birds sing less and rest more

In our research, we focused on common mynas to explore what happens to birds’ vocalisations when they don’t get enough sleep.

We measured the amount and complexity of their songs and calls after a normal night of sleep versus disturbed nights.

After just one bad night of sleep, common mynas sang fewer and less complex songs. They also spent more time resting during the day. This suggests the birds were less motivated to sing the day after and prioritised napping instead.

In a previous study with Australian magpies, we found a similar result. Magpies sang less and even lost interest in eating their favourite treat after one night of sleep deprivation.

We also tested whether half a night of sleep disturbances (either first or second half) was enough to affect common mynas’ vocal behaviour and activity and found that it was. Mynas sang less and rested more after even half a night’s disrupted sleep.

Interestingly, birds disturbed in the first half of the night sang less than those disturbed in the second half, though a full night of disruption still had the strongest effect.

Beyond singing, we found their calls also changed. Sleepy common mynas produced longer and lower pitched calls. Since these calls are used for recognition and social communication, the changes could affect how these highly social birds interact.

Why this matters for birds

Our findings reveal that even short-term sleep disturbances can affect how much and how well birds vocalise. But in nature, sleep disruption is rarely a one-off event. Light and noise pollution are chronic issues, present year-round.

This means the quality of birds’ songs and calls is likely to be constantly compromised. This raises concerns about the impact urbanisation might be having on bird communication, reproduction and survival.

While common mynas are an invasive species in most parts of the world and are well adapted to urban environments, native species are likely to be less able to cope with sleep disruption driven by urbanisation.

Urban centres can take steps to reduce night disturbances and improve birds’ sleep patterns. This includes increasing the number of safer and quieter roosting areas, such as trees and urban parks. It could also mean eliminating unnecessary lighting or using dimmers and downward-facing, warm lights.

Restrictions on heavy or highly modified vehicles and the use of fireworks would lower noise pollution at night to protect natural sleep patterns of the wildlife we share our cities with.

This study was supported by a student grant from the Australasian Society for the Study of Animal Behaviour and a doctoral scholarship from the University of Auckland.

– ref. Sleepy birds, quiet dawns: how noisy, bright city nights disrupt and change birdsong – https://theconversation.com/sleepy-birds-quiet-dawns-how-noisy-bright-city-nights-disrupt-and-change-birdsong-261459

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Glenys Oberg, PhD candidate in education and trauma, The University of Queensland

Queensland’s public school teachers will walk off the job on Wednesday in their first statewide strike in 16 years.

The state’s teaching union has asked parents to keep their primary and high school children home for the day.

While some media reports have framed this as a pay dispute, teachers insist this is about unsafe working conditions, excessive workloads and not enough resources.

Why are teachers striking?

There are, on average, 119 violent incidents in Queensland schools per day.

Teachers describe being punched, kicked and spat on by students and not given any support by their schools.

Particularly since 2018, inclusion policies have brought more students with complex needs into mainstream classrooms. Although the benefits of inclusion are proven, in Queensland this has not been accompanied by extra support.

How rare is a teachers’ strike?

This strike is unusual. Queensland teachers haven’t staged a full-day, statewide walkout since 2009.

Across Australia, such large-scale action is also rare but not unprecedented. New South Wales teachers took part in a strike in 2021 over similar issues: staff shortages, heavy workloads and stagnating pay.

Victorian teachers are also reported to be considering a strike over their latest pay deal.

What’s on the table?

In negotiations this year, the Queensland government has offered teachers an 8% pay rise over three years – with some allowances like A$100 for overnight camps.

But teachers say this won’t keep pace with inflation or with NSW, where a recent deal lifted starting teacher salaries to $87,550 and “experienced” teacher salaries to $125,723. Victorian classroom teachers earn from $79,589 to $118,063.

By comparison, Queensland’s teachers start at $84,078. A “senior” teacher earns $116,729.

Still, this isn’t just about salaries. As Queensland Teachers’ Union president Cresta Richardson says, “pay is important – but it’s not the only issue.”

Teachers want class sizes capped at sustainable levels – they are currently capped at 25 students per class until Year 3 and 28 students per class for years 4 to 10. The OECD average is 21 for primary students.

Teachers also want more time for planning and more support staff – teacher aides and counsellors – to help meet student needs.

These are the conditions that will let them do their jobs. This has been echoed by research in the United Kingdom and Australia, which found increasing workloads are a leading reason teachers give when they leave the profession.

Media coverage has missed the point

Some recent media coverage has portrayed teachers as greedy or out of touch. Lines like teachers “strike over pay […] how do they compare to nurses, police and retail workers?” create a misleading comparison that ignores the growing complexity of teachers’ roles.

Other articles focus on the inconvenience to parents, casting the strike as selfish.

The emotional toll: what the research shows

My own research, drawn from a national study of nearly 2,000 teachers, found alarmingly high levels of compassion fatigue, secondary traumatic stress and burnout.

Compassion fatigue occurs when ongoing exposure to students’ trauma and distress erodes teachers’ emotional resilience. Over time, it leads to exhaustion, disengagement and leaving the profession.

Secondary traumatic stress is the emotional distress that results from indirect exposure to trauma – when teachers repeatedly support students dealing with abuse, neglect, or hardship. It mirrors post-traumatic stress symptoms, including intrusive thoughts, emotional numbing and hypervigilance.

In my study, more than 72% of teachers scored in the moderate-to-high range for secondary traumatic stress, and more than 75% were at moderate or high risk for burnout. Teachers described feeling emotionally drained, detached from their work, and on the verge of leaving the profession due to cumulative emotional demands.

Read more:
‘It feels like I am being forced to harm a child’: research shows how teachers are suffering moral injury

A national issue

This is not just a Queensland problem. Across the country, teachers face rising expectations without the time, training or systemic support to meet them. When asked what would help, teachers say they want better staffing, stronger leadership, professional autonomy and policy reform.

These reforms include a reduction in administrative burdens, which would allow more time for lesson planning and direct support of students. They want adequate school-based mental health services, so emotional care of students does not fall solely on teachers acting as de facto counsellors.

Teachers also seek fair and consistent supports for students with extra needs, including access to specialist staff. In addition, they want protection from violence, including legal reforms that acknowledge the risks they face in their workplaces.

Finally, teachers want dedicated time for professional learning – that does not get overtaken by bureaucratic reporting tasks.

Ultimately, they are asking for a profession worth staying in. One where they’re not afraid at work. One where they have time to teach and where doing your job doesn’t mean burning out.

Glenys Oberg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Queensland teachers are striking. It’s not just about money – they are asking for a profession worth staying in – https://theconversation.com/queensland-teachers-are-striking-its-not-just-about-money-they-are-asking-for-a-profession-worth-staying-in-262496

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Robert Hoffmann, Professor of Economics, Tasmanian Behavioural Lab, University of Tasmania

The Australian Defence Force (ADF) has been facing a recruitment crisis for years. A lack of young people wanting to join has prompted a variety of responses from the force, including opening eligibility to some foreigners.

Given talk of chronic shortages and a perennial recruitment crisis in Western volunteer forces, it’s somewhat surprising to see there’s finally been some progress.

Recruitment has risen by 17% over last year’s figure. This exceeds planned growth and reverses a steady decline over the past 15 years, albeit still falls around 1,000 people short of the financial year target of 8,105.

Applications were also up by a whopping 28%.

So what has changed to explain this turnaround? In order to maintain it and be better prepared for the security challenges Australia faces, we need to know what’s behind it.

In short, the recruitment drive is working.

Why don’t Australians enlist?

We were commissioned by the ADF to examine declining recruitment. As of June last year, only 80% of the 69,000 personnel needed to meet future challenges had signed up. We wanted to know why.

Some of reasons are cultural: young Australians today – those in Gen Z – have more circumspect attitudes to nation and duty compared to previous generations.

Read more:
Gen Z is turning away from military service in record numbers. We’re trying to understand why

They also face greater mental health challenges that – rightly or wrongly – make many feel unsuited to serve their country.

Economic factors play a role too. Low unemployment and a perception of better opportunities, work conditions and future prospects in the private sector also contribute.

What’s happening globally?

We can make sense of the Australian figures by eliminating some possible explanations. The first is the idea that international conflict is driving recruitment.

Looking at comparable countries with volunteer defence forces, it turns out Australia is not alone in rising interest in military careers.

This year, the United States army met its target of recruiting 61,000 troops annually several months early.

The German Bundeswehr reported a year-on-year recruitment uptick of 28% in late July.

In the United Kingdom, there was a 19% rise in people joining the regular armed forces.

And Canada’s defence forces have just seen a ten-year high in recruitment, up by a staggering 55%.

So are people joining the armed forces in response to geopolitical issues? Not necessarily.

For many young Germans, for example, the Ukraine war is deeply and personally affecting. Yet there is no evidence it’s responsible for increased sign-ups.

Our own security challenges – such as China’s growing international assertiveness – are therefore not likely to be a driver here.

Fixing the image problem

Alternatively, we can look closer to home to see what’s behind the recruitment boost.

Typically, military service is a steady gig in bad economic times. But price rises have been largely reined in, unemployment remains relatively low and consumer confidence has improved. Economic factors are unlikely to explain what is going on.

One possibility is young people’s attitudes. The US Army has singled out renewed patriotism among youth as a reason.

This is not likely to be the case in Australia. If anything, there are indications to the contrary. Former army chief Peter Leary blamed poor recruitment and retention on falling national pride.

It’s also unlikely fundamental values such as nationalism can change quickly enough to explain the sudden recruitment boost.

It also could be that the image of the military has improved. We have had two high-profile commissions: the Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide and the Brereton Afghanistan Inquiry.

It is conceivable these softened the ADF’s reputation in the direction of Gen Z, signalling strong ethics and transparency.

A recent survey from UNSW researchers, however, suggests that while these perceptions matter, there is limited awareness of the commissions and the issues that caused them.

So what is it then?

Military recruitment depends on the employer as much as on the employee. Has the ADF done something to make service more attractive? It seems is has.

One example is mental and physical fitness standards. Commentators have argued mental health concerns can stop young people signing up. And stringent requirements mean less than 10% of applicants are accepted.

The ADF lowered medical requirements in 2024. This included requirements around acne, outed as “stupid” by Defence Personnel Minister Matt Keogh.

This made sense as military roles are becoming more diverse. With fewer soldiers on the front line, there’s less need for high-level mental and physical stamina.

Another suggestion was to make the ADF more competitive in the “war for talent” in an increasingly fierce labour market.

This too has been done: better pay, study, housing and health support are all part of a A$600 million government package.

These measures also explain why, as more new soldiers were recruited, fewer existing ones quit: attrition fell from about 10% down to 7.9%.

There were more measures, such as improving the processing of applications, and allowing citizens of New Zealand, Canada, the US and the UK to apply.

According to Keogh, this generated some 500 extra applications.

He also suggested the biggest driver was embedding ADF recruitment adverts into the media frequented by the target group of 16–25 year olds: TikTok and video games.

What does all this tell us? As none of the underlying reasons why young Australians serve have changed since last year, it seems the ADF’s recruitment initiative has hit the mark.

The range of measures – targeted advertising, better pay and conditions, or eligibility criteria – make it hard to tell which did the work. It may be a combination of all of them.

But as of July 1, the full-time ADF workforce was at 61,189 people. Given the force’s target is 69,000 by the 2030s, there’s some work still left to do.

Robert Hoffmann received funding from the Australian Defence Force for research into recruitment.

– ref. After years of backsliding, the ADF is growing again. What’s behind the recruitment uptick? – https://theconversation.com/after-years-of-backsliding-the-adf-is-growing-again-whats-behind-the-recruitment-uptick-262597

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Jennifer Parker, Adjunct Fellow, Naval Studies at UNSW Canberra, and Expert Associate, National Security College, Australian National University

Defence Minister Richard Marles has announced that Japanese shipbuilder Mitsubishi Heavy Industries has been awarded a massive contract to build three new frigates for Australia’s navy. The deal is worth a reported A$10 billion.

There are two reasons this deal is so significant.

The first is it enhances our naval capabilities. This is the first government in at least the past 50 years to push through such a significant expansion of Australia’s surface combatant fleet (meaning frigates and destroyers).

Under the government’s plans, we will be operating at least 20 surface combatants by the 2040s.

The second reason it’s so significant is because of what it says about our relationship with Japan.

Our strategic relationship has clearly evolved over the past ten years. In 2022, our two nations signed a joint declaration on security cooperation, which can be read as a quasi-alliance.

Now, this decision to purchase the new Mogami-class frigates really shows how much we trust Japan in terms of its industrial capability and its ability to support our shipbuilding needs.

Our troubled surface combatant fleet

The current state of our surface combatant fleet is parlous. We only have ten surface combatants, which is half as many as analysts have said we need. That is meant to decrease to nine next year, when HMAS Arunta is decommissioned.

The Australian National Audit Office did an audit of the sustainment of our ANZAC-class frigates in 2019, which found the ships were not in a good state. The hulls had been degraded because they had been run so hard. And the reason they’d been run so hard is because we didn’t have enough ships.

So, this deal with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries means we have a concrete plan to replace some of them.

There’s still an issue with the time frame, though. We’re expecting to receive the first ship from the Japanese in 2029, with two more by 2034.

That’s asking a lot of the current ANZAC-class ships. There’s a real question about whether they can actually make it that long, or if we will need to decommission even more in the latter part of this decade.

The reason we have this time frame gap is because you can’t build ships overnight.

In 2009, we identified a need to replace the ANZACs, and we didn’t make a decision on a new ship until 2018 when we selected the Hunter-class frigates. These new ships are being designed and built by BAE, a UK company.

The first Hunter frigate is expected to be operational in 2034. That’s a huge time gap between the decision to go with BAE in 2018 and actually having our first ship.

We were initially meant to get nine Hunter-class ships, but that number was reduced to six last year when an independent analysis team recommended acquiring a number of new multipurpose frigates instead (the Mogami frigates now coming from Japan).

We don’t know exactly when the Hunter frigates will all be delivered. But even once we have them, it will also be difficult to integrate two different types of frigates (the Hunters and Mogamis) into service at the same time. There won’t be a lot of commonality between the two types of ship.

The government should be pushing Japan to see if we can possibly get the Mogami frigates any earlier. And we should be talking to BAE about doing the same.

The one major flaw in this whole process is the failure of successive governments to take a broader look at Australia’s naval capability needs. The independent analysis led by retired US Navy Vice Admiral William Hilarides last year should have been directed to do this.

We’ve solved one problem now with the surface combatants, but other issues remain. We’re playing a game of whack-a-mole.

Risks with the Japan deal

There are also a range of risks with the new deal. One is that the new Mogami ship doesn’t actually exist yet. We’ve ordered an upgraded Mogami, based on a new design. Japan has even said Australia could get one of the upgraded ships ahead of its own navy.

This risk is mitigated, however, by Japan’s fantastic track record in building ships.

The second risk, which is significant and should not be underestimated, is that Japan does not have experience in exporting complex military equipment overseas. Japan has never exported a new warship to another country.

And what complicates this further is that Australia has historically been quite a demanding shipbuilding customer. Some believe a reason for the challenges we’ve experienced with the Hunter-class frigates is partially because we’ve made a lot of changes.

Lastly, the strategic relationship between Australia and Japan is bigger than shipbuilding. It has rapidly evolved because our national security interests are aligned. The danger with this frigate deal is that it could damage our relationship if something doesn’t go right. So, we need to proceed carefully to make sure this doesn’t happen.

Jennifer Parker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Australia’s new frigate deal with Japan plugs a few critical holes, but doesn’t come without risks – https://theconversation.com/australias-new-frigate-deal-with-japan-plugs-a-few-critical-holes-but-doesnt-come-without-risks-262612

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Hunter Bennett, Lecturer in Exercise Science, University of South Australia

You’ve probably heard that running is tough on your knees – and even that it can cause long-term damage. But is this true?

Running is a relatively high-impact activity.

Every time your foot contacts the ground while running, your body absorbs a force that equates to about two to three times your bodyweight.

It’s easy to imagine this load going straight into your knees, and it sort of does. Your knees absorb three times more load during running than walking.

But this isn’t a bad thing.

In fact, running may help keep your knees strong and healthy – here’s what the evidence says.

Designed to keep moving

Your body isn’t simply a pile of bones and cartilage that gets worn down with every step. It is a living dynamic system that grows and adapts in response to the loads that are placed upon it.

And it needs load to keep functioning.

Your knee joint is incredibly strong and designed to move. The cartilage inside your knee is a strong, flexible, connective tissue that cushions and protects the bones of your knee joint.

There is good evidence to show when someone’s load is removed – for example, during prolonged bed rest or immobilisation – their bone and cartilage begins to deteriorate.

Running’s impact on bones and cartilage

We know running temporarily reduces the thickness of knee cartilage. This returns to normal a couple of hours after the run is finished.

Researchers have suggested this may be an important process that facilitates nutrients moving into the cartilage, which can help it adapt and become stronger.

In support of this idea, evidence shows runners tend to have thicker cartilage than non-runners – especially in their knees.

Runners also tend to have better bone mineral density than non-runners. It has even been suggested the more you run, the better protected you are against developing of osteoarthritis (although more research is needed to confirm this).

All of this points to running being good for your knees’ health and longevity – even before we consider the many known benefits it has for heart and metabolic health.

But am I too old to start running?

Unfortunately (at least to my knowledge) there is no strong evidence examining what happens when you pick up running later in life. However, other lines of research do suggest it is likely safe and effective.

A 2020 study demonstrated that older adults (65 years and older) who start high intensity jump training (known as “plyometric” training) not only see improvements in strength and function, but also find it safe and enjoyable.

And considering this type of training leads to much higher joint loads than running, it gives us a good indication that starting running in later life will also be safe and effective.

However, you should still start slow.

Like any type of exercise, your muscles and joints need time to adapt to the new load that is being placed upon them.

With this in mind, it’s best to start with intervals where you walk for a short period, then jog for a short period. Then you can gradually increase your running distance over time, giving your body time to adapt.

So, why does running’s bad reputation persist?

I believe this myth still persists because, despite all its health benefits, almost half of runners will get some kind of injury each year – and injuries to the knee are among the most common.

However the vast majority of these are known as “overuse” injuries, caused by issues with load management rather than running itself. This means they are caused by people running too much too quickly, without letting their body adapt and get stronger.

Read more:
My shins hurt after running. Could it be shin splints?

All exercise comes with the risk of injury, so we will never completely eliminate the chance of getting hurt. But with respect to running, a few things can help.

First, make sure to progress slowly. Large spikes in how much and how often you run can lead to injuries. So, try not to increase your mileage by more than a couple of kilometres per week.

Second, make sure to eat enough to support your running. Running is an activity that burns a lot of energy. You also need to have adequate energy available to ensure you recover properly after you run.

Eating enough carbohydrates and protein to meet your energy and recovery needs might help prevent overuse injures such as stress fractures. Some research suggests getting enough calcium and Vitamin D might do the same.

Finally, there is some evidence to suggest that running on grass means less impact than running on harder surfaces such as concrete. So, doing a couple of your weekly runs on grass when you’re first starting might be a good way to help you adjust to the load.

For most of us, the health benefits of running will far outweigh the risks – especially if you take it slow, build up strength, and keep listening to your body.

Hunter Bennett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Does running ruin your knees? And how old is too old to start? – https://theconversation.com/does-running-ruin-your-knees-and-how-old-is-too-old-to-start-261575

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Peter Draper, Professor, and Executive Director: Institute for International Trade, and Director of the Jean Monnet Centre of Trade and Environment, University of Adelaide

Last week, US President Donald Trump issued an executive order updating the “reciprocal” tariff rates that had been paused since April.

Nearly all US trading partners are now staring down tariffs of between 10% and 50%.

After a range of baseline and sector-specific tariffs came into effect earlier this year, many economists had predicted economic chaos. So far, the inflationary impact has been less than many predicted.

However, there are worrying signs that could all soon change, as economic pain flows through to the US consumer.

Decoding the deals

Trump’s latest adjustments weren’t random acts of economic warfare. They revealed a hierarchy, and a pattern has emerged.

Countries running goods trade deficits with the US (that is, buying more than they sell to the US), which also have security relationships with the US, get 10%. This includes Australia.

Japan and South Korea, which both have security relationships with the US, were hit with 15% tariffs, likely due to their large trade surpluses with the US.

But the rest of Asia? That’s where Trump is really turning the screws. Asian nations now face average tariffs of 22.1%.

Countries that negotiated with Trump, such as Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Pakistan and the Philippines, all got 19%, the “discount rate” for Asian countries willing to make concessions.

India faces a 25% rate, plus potential penalties for trading with Russia.

Is Trump winning the trade war?

In the current trade war, it is unsurprising that despite threats to do so, no countries have actually imposed retaliatory tariffs on US products, with the exception of China and Canada. Doing so would drive up their consumer prices, reduce economic activity, and invite Trump to escalate, possibly limiting access to the lucrative US market.

Instead, nations that negotiated “deals” with the Trump administration have essentially accepted elevated reciprocal tariff rates to maintain a measure of access to the US market.

For many of these countries, this was despite making major concessions, such
as dropping their own tariffs on US exports, promising to reform certain domestic regulations, and purchasing various US goods.

Protests over the weekend, including in India and South Korea, suggested many of these tariff negotiations were not popular.

Even the European Union has struck a deal accepting US tariff rates that once would have seemed unthinkable – 15%. Trump’s confusing Russia-Ukraine war strategy has worried European leaders. Rather than risk US strategic withdrawal, they appear to have simply folded on tariffs.

Some deals are still pending. Notably, Taiwan, which received a higher reciprocal tariff (20%) than Japan and South Korea, claims it is still negotiating.

Through the narrow prism of deal making, it is hard not to escape the conclusion that Trump has gotten his way with everyone – except China and Canada. He has imposed elevated US tariffs on many countries, but also negotiated to secure increased export market access for US firms and promised purchases of planes, agriculture and energy.

Why economic chaos hasn’t arrived – yet

Imposing tariffs on goods coming into the US effectively creates a tax on US consumers and manufacturers. It drives up the prices of both finished goods (products) and intermediate goods (components) used in manufacturing.

Yet the Yale Budget Lab estimates the tariffs will cause consumer prices to rise by 1.8% this year.

This muted inflationary impact is likely a result of exports to the US being “front-loaded” before the tariffs took effect. Many US importers rushed to stockpile goods in the country ahead of the deadline.

It may also reflect some companies choosing to “eat the tariffs” by not passing the full cost to their customers, hoping they can ride things out until Trump “chickens out” and the tariffs are removed or reduced.

Who really pays

Despite Trump’s repeated claims that tariffs are a tax paid by foreign countries, research consistently shows that US companies and consumers bear the tariff burden.

Already this year, General Motors reported that tariffs cost it US$1.1 billion (about A$1.7 billion) in the second quarter of 2025.

A new 50% tariff on semi-finished copper products took effect on August 1. That announcement in July sent copper prices soaring by 13% in a single day. This affects everything from electrical wiring to plumbing, with costs ultimately passed to US consumers.

The average US tariff rate now sits at 18.3%, the highest level since 1934. This represents a staggering increase from just 2.4% when Trump took office in January.

This trade-weighted average means that, on typical imported goods, Americans will pay nearly one-fifth more in taxes.

Alarm bells

The US Federal Reserve is concerned about these potential price impacts, and last week opted to maintain interest rates at their current levels, despite Trump’s pressure on Chairman Jerome Powell.

And on August 1, economic data released in the US showed significant slowing in job creation, some worrying signs in economic growth, and early signs of business investment paralysis due to the economic uncertainty unleashed by Trump’s ever-changing tariff rates.

Trump responded to the report by firing the US Bureau of Labour Statistics commissioner, a shock move that led to widespread concerns official US data could soon become politicised.

But the worst economic impacts could still be yet to come. The domestic consequences of Trump’s tariff policies are likely to amount to a massive economic own goal.

Nathan Howard Gray receives funding from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.

Peter Draper does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. It might seem like Trump is winning his trade war. But the US could soon be in a world of pain – https://theconversation.com/it-might-seem-like-trump-is-winning-his-trade-war-but-the-us-could-soon-be-in-a-world-of-pain-262434

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Andrew Norton, Professor of Higher Education Policy, Monash University

After two years of trying to reduce international student numbers, the Albanese government will soften its approach in 2026.

The changes, announced on Monday, are small. The main feature is a modest increase in the government’s target maximum number of new international students. This will see the target go from 270,000 in 2025 to 295,000 in 2026.

But with multiple other migration policies to block or deter international students, the actual number of new international students in 2026 could still fall short of 295,000.

What is the 2025 system?

Under the current system, the 270,000 target is divided between 176,000 international students for higher education and 94,000 for vocational education. Each education provider has its own maximum number within these totals.

After the Senate rejected formal caps in November 2024, these target maximum numbers are not legally enforceable. But once an education provider reaches 80% of its target number, student visa applicants go into a visa processing slow lane.

So we have a “soft cap” system.

What will happen in 2026?

In 2026 all education providers will receive at least their 2025 allocation.

Higher education providers, including universities, will share 196,750 student places, two-thirds of the 2026 total.

Public universities (which are most of the universities in Australia) can apply for additional places if they are making “good progress” towards their 2025 allocation.

To receive new places, universities must demonstrate they are meeting two government priorities around student accommodation and increased engagement with Southeast Asia.

The student accommodation provision relates to the main original reason for cutting international student numbers: to reduce housing pressure. This policy change should help universities that offer a high number of student accommodation places relative to their enrolments.

The Southeast Asia provision is new and builds on a 2023 government-commissioned report on Australia’s Southeast Asia Economic Strategy. The emphasis on Southeast Asia should benefit universities which already have campuses in the region. It may also help universities enrolling high numbers of students from Southeast Asia in their Australian campuses.

Private not-for-profit universities will get increased caps to treat them in a more similar way to public universities. Other private higher education providers will get a 3% increase.

Increases for vocational education

In the vocational sector providers with 2025 allocations exceeding 100 will get a 5% increase for 2026.

For smaller providers, a more complex system will apply, due to under-utilisation in 2025. All their caps will be put in a single pool. These providers can freely recruit up to 80 students. Past that point, future visa applicants will be processed more slowly.

New exemptions in 2026

The 2025 limits have a range of exempt student categories that will be retained. These include school students, English-language students, students from the Pacific and Timor-Leste, research students, students with government scholarships, and some students who start their course offshore and then complete it in Australia.

In 2026, two new categories of continuing students will not be counted towards the soft cap of their next education provider.

These are international students who complete their schooling in Australia and students coming from pathway colleges. These colleges offer diploma courses based on the curriculum of a target first-year bachelor program, but with more intensive and remedial teaching methods. If the student is successful, they then transition into second year of the bachelor degree.

Will vocational education meet the caps?

The government’s many migration changes since 2023 have smashed offshore demand for vocational education.

In the first six months of 2025, only 8,108 people applied from overseas for a vocational visa, 75% down on the same time in 2023. Only 4,163 vocational visas were granted to people not already in Australia.

The Department of Education reports 68,515 commencing international vocational enrolments for 2025 as of April. While this figure does not exactly reflect the way soft caps are calculated, it is equivalent to nearly three-quarters of 2025’s vocational target number.

The large discrepancy between offshore vocational visa grants and 2025 commencements is due to onshore visa applications and a backlog of undecided applications. Both are legacies of the post-COVID enrolment boom, which left significant numbers of students and former students hoping to extend their stay in Australia.

At some point, the legacy demand sustaining vocational education will be exhausted. From there, weak demand from overseas will drive down new vocational student numbers. The increased 2026 allocation for vocational education students may not reflect the underlying problems facing international vocational education.

Can higher education meet the caps?

Despite the government’s migration policy changes, international student demand for higher education is resilient – down on the 2023 and 2024 boom years, but similar to the pre-COVID year of 2019.

China is the main reason higher education numbers have not fallen further. Compared to most other students, Chinese students express relatively low interest in migration. They are also less affected by financial changes to the migration system, such as work restrictions, requiring more savings before a visa is granted, and higher visa application fees.

For India, Australia’s second-largest international student source country after China, demand is down significantly. In the first six months of 2025, higher education visa applications from India were less than half their peak level in 2023 and down 30% on 2019.

Australian universities that rely on the Indian market are likely struggling to reach their 2025 soft cap. If so, this cap will not be increased for 2026.

What happens now?

Coming only a month after the government increased the student visa application fee for a second time, from A$1,600 to $2,000, higher soft caps for 2026 will come as a pleasant surprise for the international education sector.

But increased caps do not signal a long-term shift back towards a more market-led approach to international education. The government has confirmed its plan for the Australian Tertiary Education Commission to regulate higher education international student numbers from 2027.

This week’s announcement also continues the government’s “picking winners” approach to industry policy. It limits large movements of student enrolments between education providers and offers public universities preferential treatment.

The migration system remains much less favourable to international students than it was two years ago.

Andrew Norton works for Monash University, which has strong Southeast Asian links and may therefore benefit more than other universities from the policy discussed in this article.

– ref. Australia’s student caps will ease up in 2026, but times will still be tough for international education – https://theconversation.com/australias-student-caps-will-ease-up-in-2026-but-times-will-still-be-tough-for-international-education-262521

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Louise Devenish, Senior Lecturer and director of The Sound Collectors Lab, Sir Zelman Cowen School of Music and Performance, Monash University

Climate modelling is spoken about often by climate scientists. These complex, computer-generated calculations enable scientists to make predictions about the climate of the future.

Information generated from climate models is often shared through graphs, maps, images, animations or reports. These visual formats are excellent for accurately communicating data, statistics and recommendations, but can feel inaccessible for non-expert members of the general public.

David Attenborough said “saving our planet is now a communications challenge”. This points to the gap between the knowledge about the actions needed to address climate change, and motivation towards taking this action.

In this gap, musical creativity and imagination can offer new pathways towards awareness and understanding. This can contribute to how we collectively develop climate communication.

I have been collaborating with a team of artists and scientists on Dark Oceanography to explore new ways of sharing climate information.

Beyond words

The intangible nature of music provides exceptional opportunities to convey things that words, numbers or images cannot.

Music is a form of knowledge that is experienced, as it is felt through the body by the listener. Music provides a different means of engagement to inform our understanding of environmental phenomena – and therefore how we understand climate issues.

Climate models move beyond how things are or have been. They predict how things might be, and offer a window to view the future. Dark Oceanography takes modelling into new territory.

As director and a performer of Dark Oceanography, I worked with composer Kate Milligan, music technologist Aaron Wyatt, oceanographer Navid Constantinou and a team of percussionists.

Stepping beyond prediction into imagination, Dark Oceanography questions the nature of data and how it can be communicated. By integrating data of ocean eddies with experimental music and spatial audio technology, this work creates a fictional climate model to be experienced through new music.

Translating eddies

Ocean eddies are circular water movements like big whirlpools, found throughout the ocean. Although they can be up to 200 kilometres in diameter and descend deep beneath the ocean surface, they are unseen from land.

Eddies propel heat, energy and nutrients through the ocean. They play a key role in the circulation of water and heat in the ocean. Research shows the behaviour of eddies is changing and becoming more active. However, eddies are not always included in climate projections.

Dark Oceanography invites the audience to experience the vitality of these ocean systems, translating and transforming eddy datasets into music.

The live performances of three percussionists are captured by close microphones and sent swirling around the performance space through a multi-channel spatial audio system. Seated in the round and ringed by stations of percussion instruments, the audience is submerged in the circular motion of 360-degree sound.

The audience experience is like listening to an eddy from the inside.

The integration of scientific data with creative practice offers more than just innovative communication methods for science. It also offers new possibilities for musical composition and performance.

In Dark Oceanography, the circular motion of ocean eddies permeates every aspect of the work. This includes the instrument selection, the performers’ gestures and techniques, the notation and audience seating.

The continuous circular motion of eddies offers a metaphor for restarting, for renewal. Each iteration brings a level of change and evolution. The piece descends through the dataset in three stages from the ocean’s surface to nearly one kilometre underwater. The percussionists begin by sounding delicate glass and metal instruments, before the soundworld deepens with low drums and the sinking, sliding sounds of timpani.

A changing feat

The dataset that propels the music was extrapolated from existing ocean simulations, following the pathways of eddies from the Eastern Australian Current. As performance locations for this work change, so will the data, integrating new eddies drawn from local ocean currents. The musical experience also changes with different eddies.

The impact of changing ocean eddy systems on the global climate is currently unknown. This confluence of sound and science leans into the unknown, and offers a way of navigating uncertainty through music. Dark Oceanography shows us that there are many ways to imagine the future.

This article is part of Making Art Work, our series on what inspires artists and the process of their work.

Louise Devenish receives funding from the Australian Research Council.

This article includes contributions from the Dark Oceanography team: Louise Devenish (Monash University), Kate Milligan (University of Sydney PhD candidate), Aaron Wyatt (Monash University), and Navid Constantinou (University of Melbourne).

– ref. What would a climate model made from music sound like? This team of artists and scientists has created one – https://theconversation.com/what-would-a-climate-model-made-from-music-sound-like-this-team-of-artists-and-scientists-has-created-one-261660

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Nisa Salim, Director, Swinburne-CSIRO National Testlab for Composite Additive Manufacturing, Swinburne University of Technology

When your favourite dress or shirt shrinks in the wash, it can be devastating, especially if you followed the instructions closely. Unfortunately, some fabrics just seem to be more prone to shrinking than others – but why?

Understanding more about the science of textile fibres can not only help you prevent the shrinkage of clothing, but also might help you “rescue” the occasional garment after a laundry accident.

It’s all down to the fibres

To know more about clothing shrinkage, we first need to understand a little about how textiles are made.

Common textile fibres, such as cotton and linen, are made from plants. These fibres are irregular and crinkled in their natural form. If you zoom deeper inside them, you’ll see millions of tiny, long-chain cellulose molecules that naturally exist in coiled or convoluted shapes.

During textile manufacturing, these fibres are mechanically pulled, stretched and twisted to straighten and align these cellulose chains together. This creates smooth, long threads.

On a chemical level, there are also links between the chains called hydrogen bonds. These strengthen the fibre and the thread and make it more cohesive.

Threads are woven or knitted into fabrics, which locks in the tension that holds those fibres side by side.

However, these fibres have good “memory”. Whenever they’re exposed to heat, moisture or mechanical action (such as agitation in your washing machine), they tend to relax and return to their original crinkled state.

This fibre memory is why some fabrics wrinkle so easily and why some of them may even shrink after washing.

How does washing shrink the fabric?

To understand shrinkage, we again need to zoom down to the molecular level. During laundering, hot water helps to increase the energy level of fibres – this means they shake more rapidly which disrupts the hydrogen bonds holding them in place.

The way a fabric is knitted or woven also plays a role. Loosely knitted fabrics have more open spaces and loops, making them more susceptible to shrinkage. Tightly woven fabrics are more resistant because the threads are locked into place with less room to move.

Additionally, cellulose is hydrophilic – it attracts water. Water molecules penetrate inside the fibres, causing swelling and making them more flexible and mobile. Adding to all this is the tumble and twist action inside the washing machine.

The whole process makes the fibres relax and recoil back to their natural, less stretched, crinkled state. As a result, the garment shrinks.

It’s not just hot water – here’s why

This doesn’t just happen with hot water, as you may have experienced yourself with clothes made of rayon, for example.

Cold water can still penetrate into fibres, making them swell, along with the mechanical action of the tumbling in the washing machine. The effect is less dramatic with cold water, but it can happen.

To minimise shrinkage, you may use cold water, the lowest spin speed or the gentlest cycle available, especially for cotton and rayon. Machine labels don’t always fully explain the impact of spin speed and agitation. When in doubt, choose a “delicate” setting.

What about wool?

Different fibres shrink in different ways; there is no single mechanism that fits all.

While cellulose-based fabrics shrink as described above, wool is an animal-derived fibre made of keratin proteins. Its surface is covered in tiny, overlapping scales called cuticle cells.

During washing, these cuticles open up and interlock with neighbouring fibres causing fibre entanglement or “felting”. This makes the clothing feel denser and smaller – in other words, it shrinks.

Why don’t synthetics shrink as much?

Synthetic fibres such as polyester or nylon are made from petroleum-based polymers, engineered for stability and durability.

These polymers contain more crystalline regions that are highly ordered and act as an internal “skeleton”, preventing the fibres from crinkling.

Textile scientists and engineers are also working on fabrics that resist shrinkage through advanced material design. Among promising innovations are blended yarns that combine natural and synthetic fibres.

Some researchers are working on shape-memory polymers that can change shape – or return to a previous shape – in response to temperature or water, for example. This is different to stretch fabrics (such as those used in activewear) that are made up of highly elastic fibres which “bounce back” to their original state after stretching.

How can I unshrink a piece of clothing?

If a favourite garment has shrunk in the wash, you can try to rescue it with this simple method.

Gently soak the item in lukewarm water mixed with hair conditioner or baby shampoo (approximately one tablespoon per litre). Then, carefully stretch the fabric back into shape and dry it flat or under gentle tension – for example, by pegging the garment to a drying rack.

The reason this works is because conditioners have chemicals known as cationic surfactants. These will temporarily lubricate the fibres, making them more flexible and allowing you to gently pull everything back into place.

This process can’t completely reverse extreme shrinkage but it can help recover some of the lost size, making the clothes wearable again.

Nisa Salim does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Why do some clothes shrink in the wash? A textile scientist explains how to ‘unshrink’ them – https://theconversation.com/why-do-some-clothes-shrink-in-the-wash-a-textile-scientist-explains-how-to-unshrink-them-259388

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Ilan Noy, Chair in the Economics of Disasters and Climate Change, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of Wellington

The words and pictures documenting the famine in the Gaza strip are horrifying.

The coverage has led to acrimonious and often misguided debates about whether there is famine, and who is to blame for it – most recently exemplified by the controversy surrounding a picture published by the New York Times of an emaciated child who is also suffering from a preexisting health condition.

While pictures and words may mislead, numbers usually don’t.

The Nobel prize-winning Indian economist Amartya Sen observed some decades ago that famines are always political and economic events, and that the most direct way to analyse them is to look at food quantities and prices.

This has led to decades of research on past famines. One observation is that dramatic increases in food prices always mean there is a famine, even though not every famine is accompanied by rising food costs.

The price increases we have seen in Gaza are unprecedented.

The economic historian Yannai Spitzer observed in the Israeli newspaper Haaretz that staple food prices during the Irish Potato Famine showed a three- to five-fold increase, while there was a ten-fold rise during the Great Bengal Famine of 1943. In the North Korean famine of the 1990s, the price of rice rose by a factor of 12. At least a million people died of hunger in each of these events.

Now, the New York Times has reported the price of flour in Gaza has increased by a factor of 30 and potatoes cost 50 times more.

Israel’s food blockade

As was the case for the UK government in Ireland in the 1840s and Bengal in the 1940s, Israel is responsible for this famine because it controls almost all the Gaza strip and its borders. But Israel has also created the conditions for the famine.

Following a deliberate policy in March of stopping food from coming in, it resumed deliveries of food in May through a very limited set of “stations” it established through a new US-backed organisation (the Gaza Humanitarian Foundation), in a system that seemed designed to fail.

Before Israel’s decision in March to stop food from coming in, the price of flour in Gaza was roughly back to its prewar levels (having previously peaked in 2024 in another round of border closures). Since March, food prices have gone up by an annualised inflation rate of more than 5,000%.

The excuse the Israeli government gives for its starvation policy is that Hamas controls the population by restricting food supplies. It blames Hamas for any shortage of food.

However, if you want to disarm an enemy of its ability to wield food supplies as a weapon by rationing them, the obvious way to do so is the opposite: you would increase the food supply dramatically and hence lower its price.

Restricting supplies and increasing their value is primarily immoral and criminal, but it is also counterproductive for Israel’s stated aims. Indeed, flooding Gaza with food would have achieved much more in weakening Hamas than the starvation policy the Israeli government has chosen.

The UN’s top humanitarian aid official has described Israel’s decision to halt humanitarian assistance to put pressure on Hamas as “cruel collective punishment” – something forbidden under international humanitarian law.

The long-term aftermath of famines

Cormac Ó Gráda, the Irish economic historian of famines, quotes a Kashmiri proverb which says “famine goes, but the stains remain”.

The current famine in Gaza will leave long-lasting pain for Gazans and an enduring moral stain on Israel – for many generations. Ó Gráda points out two main ways in which the consequences of famines endure. Most obvious is the persistent memory of it; second are the direct effects on the long-term wellbeing of exposed populations and their descendants.

The Irish and the Indians have not forgotten the famines that affected them. They still resent the British government for its actions. The memory of these famines still influences relations between Ireland, India and the UK, just as Ukraine’s famine of the early 1930s is still a background to the Ukraine-Russia war.

The generational impact is also significant. Several studies in China find children conceived during China’s Great Leap Forward famine of 1959–1960 (which also killed millions) are less healthy, face more mental health challenges and have lower cognitive abilities than those conceived either before or after the famine.

Other researchers found similar evidence from famines in Ireland and the Netherlands, supporting what is known as the “foetal origins” hypothesis, which proposes that the period of gestation has significant impacts on health in adulthood. Even more worryingly, recent research shows these harmful effects can be transmitted to later generations through epigenetic channels.

Each day without available and accessible food supplies means more serious ongoing effects for the people of Gaza and the Israeli civilian hostages still held by Hamas – as well as later generations. Failure to prevent the famine will persist in collective memory as a moral stain on the international community, but primarily on Israel. Only immediate flooding of the strip with food aid can help now.

Ilan Noy is a dual citizen of both New Zealand and Israel.

– ref. Soaring food prices prove the Gaza famine is real – and will affect generations to come – https://theconversation.com/soaring-food-prices-prove-the-gaza-famine-is-real-and-will-affect-generations-to-come-262486

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Janet Ransley, Professor, Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University

About half of all serious weapons-related violence in Australia happens at home as part of domestic and family violence.

The weapons most used in these incidents are kitchen knives.

Yet new laws around the country overwhelmingly focus on public knife offences: most states and territories have toughened rules on carrying knives in public and strengthened age restrictions on the sale of knives.

Read more:
Is Australia becoming a more violent country?

Most also now allow police to use metal detector wands to aid enforcement, targeting mainly young people in public places.

But these laws do nothing to address knife violence at home.

Weapons and violence are rarely out of the media cycle in Australia, leading many to fear this country is becoming less safe for everyday people. Is that really the case, though? This is the third story in a four-part series.

What’s happening at home?

Domestic and family violence is just as serious as more public violence and merits just as much attention from governments. But different strategies are needed to address the very different drivers of public and private knife-related violence.

For the most serious of violent crimes, homicides, about 56% happen at home, 54% involve weapons, and 38% relate to domestic violence.

New South Wales data show that for domestic violence homicides, stabbing is the most common act causing death (42% of cases). Almost all stabbing homicides involved a kitchen knife.

There is a lack of readily available data from other states and territories, but it is likely this is consistent across the country.

Weapons are far less common in non-fatal violence such as assaults, with only around 2-3% involving any type of weapon. But around half of all assaults in NSW that do involve weapons are domestic violence-related and also mainly involve kitchen knives.

This level of knife use in domestic violence has remained relatively stable over time despite the long-term decline nationally for the main violence offences of homicide, assaults and robbery.

While rates of knife violence generally are stable, knife use continues to be prevalent in domestic violence.

This persistence of knives in domestic violence is not surprising given the lack of police and government strategies targeting the issue.

Tackling the problem

Typical approaches to weapons regulation involve restricting sale and availability, licensing, storage requirements, mandatory training and amnesties or buy-backs.

Australian firearms regulations demonstrate most of these approaches. They also now feature mandatory health assessments and bans on access by people with a known domestic violence history.

Knife regulation is more limited, mostly involving bans of some types of knives such as machetes, restrictions on knife-carrying in public and age restrictions on purchase. South Australia has started a three-month surrender modelled on gun amnesties, in which newly restricted machetes and swords can be voluntarily handed in to police.

Unlike firearms control, there is as yet no evidence that regulating access and carrying of knives, or improved detection, has any impact on violent crime. And these regulations have almost no impact on the half of all knife violence happening at home.

A common response to knife-reduction is police-led crackdown, with expanded stop-and-search powers intended to deter knife-carrying. There is no evidence internationally or from Australia that this approach works in any setting.

Also common are education programs mostly targeting young people. Again, these have these been found not to work.

For young people, the strongest evidence favours individually tailored supports that address underlying needs for safety, housing, education and employment, which are the biggest drivers of youth knife-carrying.

More needs to be done

Drivers in domestic violence are different. While there is considerable research on the causes, contexts and features of domestic violence, little attention has been paid to the role of weapons.

This is particularly so for the most used weapon in domestic violence, the highly accessible kitchen knife, which is found in every home. No pre-planning is needed for access and no regulations affect their availability.

It is not feasible to ban or license kitchen knives. But a novel suggestion is to phase out pointed knives and instead encourage the use of round-tip knives, as the knife tip is the biggest contributor to lethality.

This would not stop domestic violence, but would reduce its harmful outcomes. It might be a worthwhile interim measure.

But for real prevention, we need continued action on the Australian government’s recent rapid review strategy for domestic violence prevention.

Commissioned after the prime minister’s May 2024 declaration of a “national crisis” of violence against women and children, the rapid review examined evidence-based approaches to domestic violence prevention.

It made 21 detailed recommendations including:

• better risk assessment and information sharing by police
• more use of multi-agency responses
• improved primary prevention and perpetrator response programs.

Reducing domestic violence is the long-term key to reducing 50% of weapons use in Australia and that requires multi-pronged, integrated and coordinated approaches that are supported by all governments.

It’s time for more government attention on this and less focus on unproven approaches to knife carrying in public.

Janet Ransley receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Paul Ramsay Foundation.

– ref. Governments and police are tackling weapons in public – but they’re ignoring it in our homes – https://theconversation.com/governments-and-police-are-tackling-weapons-in-public-but-theyre-ignoring-it-in-our-homes-260097

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Kevin O’Sullivan, Associate Professor, School of Law, The University of Western Australia

Society needs efficient and well-functioning courts. In practice, that means we need judges and magistrates in good mental health.

However, a growing body of research shows these judicial officers are living with very concerning levels of stress and trauma.

A growing body of research

This is a worldwide problem.

One 2025 New Zealand study reported judges and magistrates had to contend with “enormous workloads, complex cases, unmanageable deadlines, high personal and public performance expectations, and reported professional isolation with limited management support”.

A study of Ghanaian judges published this year revealed many feel under intense pressure to perform, and struggle with work-life balance. Research shows judges in the United Kingdom are experiencing stress, burnout, sleep problems and isolation.

A study I coauthored with researchers specialising in law, sociology and psychology looked more closely at this issue in the Australian context.

Our research, based on a survey of 602 judges and magistrates from all states and territories across Australia, and published last year in the Judicial Officers Bulletin, revealed 38.4% registered either moderate or high levels of distress.

More than one-third of them had trauma symptom levels high enough to warrant a formal assessment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

We also found judges take joy in making a positive contribution to society. They often enjoy the complex legal decision-making required in their jobs, and derive satisfaction from formulating reasons and writing judgments.

When we looked at stress and trauma, however, the picture that emerged was extremely worrying.

To measure participants’ overall psychological distress, we used the well-researched Kessler-10 scale. You might have done this questionnaire yourself in a hospital or GP’s office.

Only 2.2% of people in the general population score above 30 on this test, which puts them in a very high-risk category.

A score above 30 indicates a 76% chance you will meet the diagnostic criteria for a disorder such as anxiety, depression or substance use.

Worryingly, 5.6% of the judges in our sample scored above 30.

In other words, judges were more than twice as likely to score above 30 than the general population.

In fact, 38.4% registered either moderate or high levels of distress.

We also tested participants against a different measure known as the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (which measures the effects of working with traumatised people).

More than 30% of respondents’ scores were in the moderate, high or severe ranges. Scoring this high would warrant a formal assessment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

This is far higher than what we’d expect to see in the general population.

Grim work and an unmanageable pace

We also asked judges and magistrates about sources of stress in their life.

Judges and magistrates often cited the volume of work and the pace required to accomplish it as stressors. One told us:

The workload was such that I could produce judgments of a standard that satisfied me, and do my fair share of the court’s work, only by working at weekends.

Another said:

The greatest stress in my last few years of service was the never-ending nature of criminal cases involving sex offences against children.

All of our studies so far have found that both the prevalence of psychological distress and of systemic challenges is significantly greater in the Magistrates Courts (which handle the vast majority of cases) than in the District, County or Supreme Court (which handle matters that cannot be heard in the Magistrates Courts).

Even after allowing for other variables such as the gender of the magistrate or location of the court, the most significant factor driving this was just doing the work of a magistrate (higher workloads, less support and fewer assistants).

The surge in self-represented litigants, who impose a very significant burden on the legal system, also represented a major source of stress. Respondents spoke about unmanageably long court lists of 100 or 120 cases in a day.

It is vitally important magistrates not be confronted with matters involving 50 or 100 people a day, with court papers often disorganised and needing to be assembled while listening to lawyers.

Many also spoke about the difficulty of balancing family with work.

One judge told us:

I feel the court system is 50 years behind supporting judicial officers who have family or carer responsibilities.

What would help?

Many people assume judges and magistrates live a privileged and serene existence.

The research tells a different story.

These issues are not new. Former judge of the High Court of Australia, the Honourable Michael Kirby’s 1995 paper Judicial Stress: an unmentionable topic also drew attention to these problems.

And well before that, American clinical psychologist Isaiah Zimmerman highlighted how judges endure isolation, lose friendships and contend with threats.

He formulated what he called a “personal burnout prevention plan” to be implemented every six months.

Practical measures to help could include:

• chamber days, where judges are relieved of court duty to catch up on other work
• access to high-quality counselling
• making space for conversations around wellbeing
• more sabbatical leave, and
• having more magistrates overall.

The first step, however, is to acknowledge that judicial officers work hard to provide us with the highest quality court system.

This work is often being done at great personal, unseen, cost – a cost we ignore at our peril.

Too many stressed and burnt out judges could risk a shortage of judicial officers, a clogged court system and lower quality judgments. It may put at risk the healthy functioning of the entire legal system.

Kevin O’Sullivan has received funding from Australian Research Council grant DP220100585. Ethics approval was obtained from UNSW (UNSW Ethics HC230067) and from all partnering institutions (UWA, Griffith, Flinders and University of Tasmania).

– ref. Trauma, stress and burnout among judges and magistrates could put the whole legal system at risk – https://theconversation.com/trauma-stress-and-burnout-among-judges-and-magistrates-could-put-the-whole-legal-system-at-risk-262214

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Liz Allen, Demographer, POLIS Centre for Social Policy Research, Australian National University

At first glance, it might seem like good news. Divorces in Australia have dropped to their lowest rate since no-fault divorce was introduced. And on average, marriages are lasting longer.

Latest data show 2.1 divorces registered for every 1,000 Australians aged 16 and over in 2024.

But while greater longevity of marriages has been heralded as a sign of more successful relationships, the reality is far more nuanced.

Australians are marrying and divorcing less and having fewer children amid increasing economic insecurity. It’s emblematic of deep and complex social change.

50 years of divorce without fault

Divorce in Australia has changed significantly since the 1975 reform that removed the requirements to show fault. That is, couples could now go their separate ways without having to explain themselves.

For 20 years before no-fault divorce, marriage dissolution was reported by court-decreed fault and included among official crime statistics.

Included among the more than a dozen grounds for divorce were adultery, drunkenness and non-consummation.

When Australians divorce now, they’re older – 47 years for men and 44 for women – reflecting increasing age when marrying and longer duration in marriage.

Marriages are typically lasting just over eight months more to separation and nearly 11 months longer to divorce than in 2019, the year before the COVID pandemic started. Such an increase points to a swift and sharp change likely brought on during and since the pandemic.

But this doesn’t mean we’re getting better at navigating relationships – rather, Australians are remaining longer in marriages due to economics.

Cohabiting before marriage is also increasingly common, enabling relationship testing.

Most Australians believe marriage isn’t necessarily a lifelong thing, reflecting widespread acceptance of divorce. But marriage remains an important aspect of our lives.

Fewer brides and grooms

Marriage remains a major part of Australian society, with most Australians marrying at some point in their lives.

Marriage equality, enshrined in law in 2017, reflects the enduring relevance of formal marriage.

But there have been some changes.

Religion no longer dominates marriage, with most weddings officiated by celebrants. This trend has continued since the late 1990s. In 2023, more than 83% of marriages were conducted by civil celebrants, not a religious minister.

Latest figures show marriages have steadied since the COVID slump and rebound, with Australians marrying less on average now than before the pandemic.

Overall, the rate of marriage has more than halved since 1971, dropping from 13 marriages per 1,000 people aged 16 years and over to 5.5 in 2024.

Marriage rates are now well down from the peak set during Australia’s post-war baby boom, where increased and younger coupling drove record birth rates in the 1960s.

While most children are born to married parents, the proportion has changed substantially over the years. In 1971, 91% of births were to married parents, declining to 60% in 2023.

The paradox of choice

Choice is generally increasing when it comes to relationships, but also becoming more constrained on the family front.

The choice to not be in a relationship is increasing. Whereas in the face of socioeconomic challenges, choices around building a family are more limited.

Many Australians now won’t achieve their desired family size because the barriers to having a much-wanted child, or subsequent child, are insurmountable. Financial and social costs of raising a child while juggling housing affordability, economic insecurity, gender inequality and climate change are just too high.

The proportion of women without children over their lifetime nearly doubled from 8.5% in 1981 to 16.4% in 2021. On average, Australians are having fewer children than ever, with the total fertility rate at a record low of 1.5 births per woman.

Changing expectations and norms concerning coupling and childbearing have enabled greater empowerment for Australians to choose whether they marry at all. Women especially benefit from more progressive attitudes towards remaining single and childfree.

The costs of divorce

Costs associated with a divorce can be high, with a “cheap” marriage dissolution starting upwards of $10,000.

Couples have become creative in navigating marriage breakups during a cost-of-living crisis.

Where children are present – 47% of divorced couple families – parents are looking to new ways to minimise adverse social and economic consequences. “Birdnesting”, where kids remain in the family home as parents rotate in and out according to care arrangements, is one such solution.

Novel child-centred approaches to family separation are most successful where relationship breakups are amicable. Around 70% of separations and divorces involving children are negotiated among parents themselves.

Ever-increasing numbers of Australians are living apart together (known as LATs), where they are a couple but live separately. This is particularly common among parents raising children. It’s a novel solution for parents who don’t want the headache of having a new partner move in with them post-divorce.

Rising housing costs and widening economic insecurity mean separation may not even be an option, especially where children are involved. Research shows soaring house prices can keep people in marriages they might otherwise leave.

Read more:
Soaring house prices may be locking people into marriages, new research shows

Living under the same roof and raising children while separated is increasingly a response to financial pressures. Where relationships involve financial dependence and high conflict, such arrangements are forcing families into potentially highly volatile circumstances.

Families are changing and diversifying, and policy must reflect this.

Cost-of-living pressures are increasingly denying couples much-wanted families and making it more difficult for families to thrive, divorced or not.

Liz Allen receives funding from the Australian Research Council for work examining grandparenting in Australia. Liz is a member of the National Foundation of Australian Women Social Policy Committee.

– ref. Australia’s divorce rate is the lowest it’s been in 50 years. Why? – https://theconversation.com/australias-divorce-rate-is-the-lowest-its-been-in-50-years-why-262206

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Nicholas Procter, Professor and Chair: Mental Health Nursing, University of South Australia

Stories about interest rates and cost-of-living often focus on Australians’ hip pockets. But what about the impact on our mental health?

The National Mental Health Commission’s most recent “report card” shows financial stress has taken a significant toll in the last few years.

It found the proportion of people finding it “difficult” or “very difficult” to cope on their income doubled from 17.1% in November 2020 to 34.6% in January 2024. Women consistently reported higher levels of financial stress compared to men.

More people are also delaying seeing a mental health professional due to cost – or not seeing one at all (20.4% in 2023–24, compared to 12% in 2020–21).

But whether you’re experiencing a job loss, struggling with debt, or just worried about day-to-day expenses, it’s important to take your mental health seriously.

Financial stress and mental health

We often focus on the medical aspects of mental health, for example, whether someone has a certain mental health condition such as depression or anxiety.

But broader social factors can also influence our mental health, including access to housing, income, unemployment and food insecurity. These are known as social determinants of health.

These are the things that often feel out of our control – and therefore can make us feel helpless. The report card also found people who experience a high sense of control over their lives declined slightly between 2019 and 2023.

Being able to save and pay off debt is linked to significantly better mental health.

In contrast, having to forgo meals or medicine, or struggling with bills and rent or mortgage payments, is stressful and over time can affect our physical and mental health.

Financial stress can lead some people to develop anxiety or depression, or use alcohol and drugs to cope. If you have a pre-existing mental health condition, it can also make things more challenging.

We also know that rates of suicide are often higher in groups that experience economic disadvantage and financial hardship.

Signs financial stress is taking a toll

Feeling overwhelmed can make it harder to take care of yourself, but it’s important – and will also make it easier to work through your financial situation.

Try taking one step at a time. The first is to take notice of what is happening.

Signs financial stress is affecting your health and/or relationships might include:

• arguing a lot about money
• having difficulty sleeping
• fatigue
• feeling angry, scared or experiencing mood swings
• feeling guilty and worried about spending money
• delaying health care because of the cost.

These are normal responses to money stress. But if they’re not addressed, they may lead to further difficulties.

Understanding your relationship with money

Mental distress can also affect how you deal with your personal finances – and make it harder to get on top of them.

For example, people who have struggled with money in the past – or who grew up in circumstances without much money – may have a difficult relationship with managing finances.

You may have patterns of behaviours – such as frequently spending above your means or borrowing money – that make you more stressed about money. Maybe you cope by avoiding the problem, ignoring emails from banks or not reading bills.

Some people may find it helpful to understand how money is linked to emotional wellbeing. This means getting to know your money and mood patterns.

You might start by keeping a diary of your spending and your mood, considering when you’re more likely to spend and why, what emotions come up, and how best to manage them.

Beyond Blue’s money, financial wellbeing and mental health quiz is another good place to start.

Where else to get help

Beyond Blue and the National Debt Helpline provide a breakdown of what might be causing financial distress and can help you find free financial counselling.

Free online tips and advice about managing your finances and household debt are also available via the government website MoneySmart, or Financial Counselling Australia (a not-for-profit).

For mental health symptoms, such as trouble sleeping or feeling anxious, Medicare Mental Health is a free service that connects you with support services, either via the website or by calling 1800 595 212 (weekdays 8:30am – 5pm). You can also talk to your GP.

Remember, no matter how difficult the situation, it’s never too early – or too late – to get support.

If this article has raised issues for you, or if you’re concerned about someone you know, call Lifeline on 13 11 14.

Nicholas Procter currently receives funding from SA Health, Department of Veterans Affairs, and Overseas Services for the Survivors of Torture and Trauma.

– ref. Financial stress is on the rise in Australia. Here’s what to do if money worries are affecting your mental health – https://theconversation.com/financial-stress-is-on-the-rise-in-australia-heres-what-to-do-if-money-worries-are-affecting-your-mental-health-262441

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Jason Nassios, Deputy Director and Associate Professor, Centre of Policy Studies, Victoria University

Australia’s tax system has come under scrutiny again ahead of the government’s reform roundtable later this month. Economists argue we could raise the same revenue with less economic harm by relying more on efficient taxes and less on inefficient ones.

Our new study offers fresh evidence that two of the most inefficient taxes, stamp duty and insurance taxes, remain harmful even at very low rates.

This strengthens the case for abolishing these taxes altogether, rather than merely scaling them back.

What makes a tax inefficient?

When economists call a tax “inefficient”, they mean it distorts economic activity by discouraging work, saving, investment or mobility. That creates an “excess burden”, a cost to society beyond the actual tax dollars collected.

The economic damage inflicted by raising a dollar of extra tax revenue is referred to as the “marginal excess burden”.

To illustrate, if a particular tax has a marginal excess burden of 25 cents, it means for each extra dollar the government raised through this tax, the economy would shrink by 25 cents. The reduction in economic activity comes from disincentives and distortions. The 25 cents is a pure loss: no one receives it.

Broad-based taxes like the GST and personal income tax have relatively low economic costs, especially compared to narrow taxes such as stamp duties and insurance duties.

What we did differently

Past studies have compared the economic damage of different taxes at current tax rates. But major reforms, like replacing stamp duties with higher income or consumption taxes, require large shifts in tax rates, which can alter how damaging each tax is.

Economic damage per dollar of tax revenue generally falls as a tax’s rate falls. This raises a question: could highly distortionary taxes such as stamp duty and insurance taxes become more efficient if they were set at much lower rates?

To test this, we asked: How does a tax’s economic damage change as we raise or lower its rate?

We built a detailed model of Australia’s economy, representing each state and territory separately, with all major taxes included at a granular, regional level. We then simulated how economic welfare changes as revenue from four key taxes is increased or reduced:

• personal income tax
• goods and services tax (GST)
• stamp duties
• insurance duties.

We focused on these four because they are frequently mentioned in Australian tax reform debates, and because national taxes (personal income tax and GST) are sometimes proposed as replacements for state-based ones (stamp duty and insurance duties).

The result: two taxes that remain inefficient at any level

The table below shows the economic damage, measured in cents of lost welfare per dollar raised, for each of the four taxes. In our journal paper, we also modelled a range of different options for each tax.

For example, stamp duty currently raises revenue equivalent to about 1.1% of GDP. At that rate, the last dollar of stamp duty raised causes 76 cents of economic loss. Our results show that even modest reforms will help: reducing stamp duty to raise revenue equal to 1% of GDP lowers the damage, to 73 cents.

However, our results also show that even at low revenue levels – just 0.01% of GDP – stamp duties and insurance duties still impose high marginal excess burdens: 39 cents and 31 cents, respectively.

These taxes have narrow bases and distort behaviour. Stamp duty discourages mobility, such as downsizing property or moving for a new job, and insurance duties discourage insurance uptake, making these taxes poor tools for raising even modest revenue.

In contrast, the GST and personal income tax cause much less economic damage at current rates (about 24 cents per dollar raised) compared to stamp duties or insurance taxes. While their efficiency declines as their revenue share of GDP rises, they still outperform stamp duty and insurance taxes.

This matters. Keeping inefficient taxes but raising only small amounts may seem politically easier, but our results show it still imposes high economic costs per dollar. Narrow based taxes like these should be removed entirely from Australia’s system.

A better tax mix could lift national welfare

We also modelled a revenue-neutral tax swap: abolish stamp duty and insurance duty, replacing the lost revenue with higher GST and personal income tax.

The most efficient mix – 48% of the replacement revenue from GST and 52% from income tax – would deliver a welfare gain equivalent to a one-off payment of about A$935 per household, and lift the economic damage of GST and personal income tax from 24 cents to 25.1 cents per dollar raised. This is much lower than both stamp duty and insurance taxes, even at very low revenue levels.

States could achieve similar gains independently of the federal government. In earlier work, we estimated payroll tax, another broad-based state tax, has an efficiency cost of about 22 cents, similar to personal income tax and GST. If the states acted together, payroll tax could be used to replace stamp and insurance duties.

The Australian Capital Territory is already phasing out stamp duty and Victoria has abolished stamp duty for commercial and industrial properties.

The path forward

Reform is not simple. Inefficient levies such as stamp duty and insurance taxes fund a large share of state budgets. Eliminating them would create major revenue gaps.

Letting Canberra raise the replacement revenue would worsen Australia’s already high fiscal imbalance between the states and federal government. That would deepen the divide between those who spend and those who tax, and weaken democratic accountability.

The alternative, getting all states to raise payroll taxes in unison, would be just as difficult, requiring complex negotiations.

Still, the economic case is clear: some taxes, especially stamp duty and insurance duty, are inefficient at any level. Replacing them sooner means greater long-term gains for Australians.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Some taxes are inefficient at any level. Even modest reforms will help – https://theconversation.com/some-taxes-are-inefficient-at-any-level-even-modest-reforms-will-help-262043

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Andrew J. Martin, Scientia Professor and Professor of Educational Psychology, UNSW Sydney

If you had to do a test, how would you respond? Would you relish the chance to demonstrate your knowledge? Or worry you were about to fall short of the mark and embarrass yourself?

Research tells us students’ attitudes towards taking tests or doing exams can have an impact on their performance. This is because what they think about themselves, the test questions, and the consequences of the test can impact their motivation and focus during the test.

To date, this research has largely grouped students into two main types of test-takers. One group sees tests as a challenge they can cope with. Another sees tests as a threat they will not be able to handle.

But some studies have suggested these groupings may be too broad to give useful support to students.

In our new study, the largest of its kind, we explored Australian high school students taking a science test. By capturing diverse psychological data, such as students’ brainwaves and stress responses, we found there are four types of test-takers.

Our study

We studied 244 male and female students from three Sydney schools in years 8 to 10 as they did a science test.

It is the largest study of its kind to collate diverse information on students’ brain wave activity, physiological responses and self-reported attitudes while they are doing a test.

This is significant because this kind of research is usually done in labs with large functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machines, a setting quite different from a real classroom. Our approach allowed us to get a well-rounded look at the different psychological indicators at play when students do a test.

The students were part of a larger research project looking at science engagement. The test was developed by our research team, with guidance from science teachers.

How we set up our research

Students wore an electroencephalogram (EEG) headset during the test to capture their brain activity, via alpha and theta waves.

The alpha waves measured how much students were focusing on the test and the theta waves looked at the strain on their working memory (which students need to use to solve problems in a test). Both these capacities can be disrupted if a person feels threatened or stressed.

Students also wore a biometric wristband that measured their sweat glands. In our study, lower “electrodermal activity” scores indicated a calmer and more positive state, and higher scores indicated stress.

Midway through the test, students reported how confident they were about meeting the demands of the test and how anxious they felt about not meeting the demands.

We then used a statistical technique called latent profile analysis to help us identify different types of test-takers. This technique enables researchers to identify subgroups based on certain variables.

4 types of test-takers

We were able to identify four groups of students who had distinct patterns on these different measures.

1. Confident striders: these students took the test “in their stride”. They reported high confidence and low anxiety, and recorded an optimal balance of attention and working memory. Their wristband readings indicated they were calm. They made up 27% of the group.

2. Confident battlers: also reported they were confident and low in anxiety, but other data suggested they were battling behind the scenes. Their wristband readings suggested their “fight or flight” system was aroused. Their brain waves also showed their working memory did not have as much capacity to problem-solve as the confident striders, which also indicates a level of stress. They made up 8% of the group.

3. Ambivalents: these students were average across all of the indicators, reflecting that they didn’t see the test as a challenge or a threat. They made up 38% of the group.

4. Fearers: reported low confidence and high anxiety. Their wristband readings indicated they were stressed, and their brain wave readings showed they were not directing much direction to the actual test. They made up 27% of the group.

How did these test-takers perform on the test?

We then looked at the test performance for each of these four test-takers. Not surprisingly, confident striders were the highest achievers. Confident battlers also did well on the test, but not as well as striders. Ambivalents scored lower on the test, but not as low as fearers.

These results were measured against students’ previous science results (in school tests and assignments), because we wanted to know whether students performed above or below their usual level. This was to ensure we were measuring the impact of students’ psychological approach to the test, rather than just how good they are at science.

Taken together, our findings suggest that believing in themselves, confronting any fearful thoughts, and having a clear mind to concentrate on the task, puts students in the strongest position to perform well.

What can teachers do?

Our findings also provide guidance for teachers to target the factors that defined the test-takers.

• To help build confidence, students can be taught how to challenge doubts about themselves. This can include reminding students of their strengths as they approach the test. For example, students could reflect on how well they conducted the experiments in their science lessons if the test includes questions about those experiments.

• To ease anxiety, students can be taught constructive ways to think about challenging schoolwork. For example, students can remind themselves of the knowledge they have learned that will be helpful. Students can also be taught to use breathing and mindfulness exercises to ease stress. This can reduce a physical stress response and help focus their attention on the task at hand.

• To optimise working memory, for in-class assessments teachers can match the test to students’ abilities and prior learning. This means the test is challenging enough, but not so overwhelming that it excessively burdens working memory while they are problem solving. This can also help build confidence ahead of other, higher-stakes exams.

Andrew J. Martin received funding from the Australian Research Council and The King’s School for this research. He also receives funding from Commonwealth and state departments of education.

Emma Burns receives funding from the Australian Research Council, is an associate editor for the Australian Educational Researcher and is on the board of the Australian Educational Research Organisation.

Joel Pearson receives funding from The Australian Research Council.

Rebecca J. Collie receives funding from Commonwealth and State Departments of Education. She has also received funding from the Australian Research Council.

Roger Kennett received funding from the Australian Research Council and The King’s School for this research.

– ref. How do you feel about doing exams? Our research unearthed 4 types of test-takers – https://theconversation.com/how-do-you-feel-about-doing-exams-our-research-unearthed-4-types-of-test-takers-261552

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of Canberra

Krissy Barrett has been appointed the first female commissioner of the Australian Federal Police, replacing Reece Kershaw, who is retiring ahead of the end of his term.

As a deputy commissioner since 2024, Barrett has managed the national security portfolio. Her responsibilities have included counter terrorism, special investigations, and foreign interference and espionage.

Announcing her appointment at a news conference in Canberra, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese said Barrett was renowned for her leadership capability. “I’ve certainly seen that firsthand in the dealings that I’ve had with Ms Barrett, as well as the way that she has represented the AFP on matters before the national security committee [of cabinet].”

Kershaw has been commissioner since 2019 and was reappointed in 2024 for two years. Barrett has been appointed for five years.

Home Affairs Minister Tony Burke told the joint news conference that Kershaw “to my surprise” had sought a private meeting with him a couple of weeks ago and had gone through his family situation, saying he intended to retire. “I wasn’t expecting the announcement from him.”

Kershaw told the news conference, “I’m coming up to almost 11 years as a commissioner and […] it takes its toll on the family life. Being a grandfather has changed me dramatically, and I need to be there for my family”.

He said his wife had given up her career to support him “so it is time for me to give back”.

Barrett said she had started with the AFP as a 21-year-old administrative assistant. “I never imagined that one day I would be leading this very fine organisation, which now has a workforce of over 8000 people and is posted in more than 30 countries.” She said the force’s remit, experience and capabilities had changed dramaticaly over the years.

Barrett said she would have more to say about her priorities as commissioner in coming weeks.

Michelle Grattan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Krissy Barrett becomes first woman Australian Federal Police commissioner – https://theconversation.com/krissy-barrett-becomes-first-woman-australian-federal-police-commissioner-261098

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Niven Winchester, Professor of Economics, Auckland University of Technology

The global rollercoaster ride of United States trade tariffs has now entered its latest phase.

President Donald Trump’s April 2 “Liberation Day” announcement placed
reciprocal tariffs on all countries. A week later, amid financial market turmoil, these tariffs were paused and replaced by a 10% baseline tariff on most goods.

On July 31, however, the Trump Administration reinstated and expanded the reciprocal tariff policy. Most of these updated tariffs are scheduled to take effect on August 7.

To evaluate the impact of these latest tariffs, we also need to take into account recently negotiated free trade agreements (such as the US-European Union deal), the 50% tariffs imposed on steel and aluminium imports, and tariff exemptions for imports of smartphones, computers and other electronics.

For selected countries, the reciprocal tariffs announced on April 2 and the revised values of these tariffs are shown in the table below. The revised additional tariffs are highest for Brazil (50%) and Switzerland (39%), and lowest for Australia and the United Kingdom (10%).

For most countries, the revised tariffs are lower than the original ones. But Brazil, Switzerland and New Zealand are subject to higher tariffs than those announced in April.

In addition to the tariffs displayed above, Canadian and Mexican goods not registered as compliant with the US-Mexico-Canada Agreement are subject to tariffs of 35% and 25% respectively.

Economic impacts

The economic impacts of the revised tariffs are examined using a global model of goods and services markets, covering production, trade and consumption.

A similar model was used to assess the impacts of the original reciprocal tariffs and the outcome of a US-China trade war.

GDP impacts of the tariffs are displayed in the table below. The impacts of the additional tariffs are evaluated relative to trade measures in place before Trump’s second term. Retaliatory tariffs are not considered in the analysis.

An economic own goal

The tariffs reduce US annual GDP by 0.36%. This equates to US$108.2 billion or $861 per household per year (all amounts in this article are in US dollars).

The change in US GDP is an aggregate of impacts involving several factors.

The tariffs will compel foreign producers to lower their prices. But these price decreases only partially offset the cost of the tariffs, so US consumers pay higher prices.

Businesses also pay more for parts and materials. Ultimately, these higher prices hurt the US economy.

The tariffs decrease US merchandise imports by $486.7 billion. But as they drive up the cost of US supply chains and shift more workers and resources into industries that compete with imports, away from other parts of the economy, they also decrease US merchandise exports by $451.1 billion.

Global impacts

For most other countries, the additional tariffs reduce GDP. Switzerland’s GDP decreases by 0.47%, equivalent to $1,215 per household per year. Proportional GDP decreases are also relatively large for Thailand (0.44%) and Taiwan (0.38%).

In dollar terms, GDP decreases are relatively large for China ($66.9 billion) and the European Union ($26.6 billion).

Australia and the United Kingdom gain from the tariffs ($0.1 billion and $0.07 billion respectively), primarily due to the relatively low tariffs levied on these countries.

Despite facing relatively low additional tariffs, New Zealand’s GDP decreases by 0.15% ($204 per household) as many of its agricultural exports compete with Australian commodities, which are subject to an even lower tariff.

Although the revised reciprocal tariffs are, on average, lower than those announced on April 2, they are still a substantial shock to the global trading system.

Financial markets have been buoyant since Trump paused reciprocal tariffs on April 9, partly on the hope that the tariffs would never be imposed. US tariffs of at least 10% to 15% now appear to be the new norm.

As US warehouses run down inventories and stockpiles, there could be a rocky road ahead.

Niven Winchester has previously received funding from the Productivity Commission and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade to estimate the impacts of potential trade policies. He is affiliated with Motu Economic & Public Policy Research.

– ref. New Trump tariffs: early modelling shows most economies lose – the US more than many – https://theconversation.com/new-trump-tariffs-early-modelling-shows-most-economies-lose-the-us-more-than-many-262491