Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Christian Moro, Associate Professor of Science & Medicine, Bond University

Why do you get bubbles (pins and needles) in your legs when you sit on them?

– Bonnie, aged four, Melbourne

That’s a great question, Bonnie.

There are a few reasons we might get a feeling of pins and needles inside our bodies. Sometimes, this feeling happens when we get sick or hurt ourselves. It can also happen because of different health conditions, or because of our genes (we inherit our genes from our parents).

We might also experience pins and needles when we sit in the same position for too long, or when we squish a particular part of our body, like our legs. This is what you’ve asked about, so that’s what we’ll talk about in this article.

The feeling of pins and needles, which you might also call “tingles”, comes from our nerves.

Nerves are made up of special cells that send electrical signals – basically messages – between our brain and our body. So nerves help our brain talk to our muscles and other parts of our body to control things like movement.

Let’s take a closer look at nerves, and what role they play in giving us pins and needles.

Squishing our blood vessels

The nerves in our body need many things to work well, such as nutrients (the good stuff we get from the food we eat), oxygen from the air we breathe, and lots of blood. Our blood helps carry this oxygen, the nutrients and other useful things around our bodies.

The heart pumps blood to all the parts of our body through blood vessels, which are like little tubes.

If we sit on our legs for too long, it can squash some of the smaller blood vessels in that part of our body. This means the blood cannot flow properly anymore. And then, any nerves which need a supply of blood from those vessels are no longer getting the nutrients or oxygen they need.

This causes the nerves to slow down, trying to save their energy. It’s a bit like they’ve fallen asleep. The area will become quite numb and you won’t feel much.

You might get this feeling when you sit in one position for too long, or squash a hand or arm under your weight for a while. Have you ever woken up in bed with a dead arm?

Then, when you finally move around, the blood vessels instantly open, and blood rushes into the area and wakes the nerves up.

The nerves can then start firing their electrical signals. As they wake up, we get a strange feeling. This is the pins and needles sensation. Often, the area might also feel numb, or become a bit hard to move.

There’s no need to worry

The medical term for this tingling, pins and needles, bubbles or numbness is “paraesthesia”.

Some people might find this feeling a bit scary. But there’s usually no need to worry. If you’ve just been sitting on your legs a little too long, or sleeping on your arm, the area will fill with blood again as soon as you move around a bit.

Then the nerves will once again receive the nutrients and oxygen they need, and you’ll be back to normal in no time.

Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Curious Kids: why do you get pins and needles in your legs when you sit on them? – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231479

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Simone Celine Marshall, Professor of Medieval Literature, University of Otago

While the proposed revisions of the English curriculum in secondary schools have unnerved and offended some, there is perhaps one silver lining.

In a system seemingly intent on pushing students towards scientific and technical subjects, it is at least good to see literature can still create debate and controversy.

Details remain scant, but the curriculum rewrite would reportedly put more emphasis on traditional texts and teaching – more grammar, more Shakespeare, and even more Chaucer.

Some have criticised the apparent secrecy of the curriculum review process and its prescriptive nature, and have questioned how relevant or accessible such authors might be for modern students in Aotearoa New Zealand.

But as the country’s only university academic specialising in medieval English literature, I want to explain how I teach Chaucer in the 21st century, and why the texts of “dead white men” might still be useful and relevant in the classroom.

The medieval made modern

When I’m teaching, I ask my students this question: why do they think we are studying Chaucer here at the end of the world, and what relevance could 600-year-old stories possibly have for us now?

In fact, Geoffrey Chaucer, who lived between about 1340 and 1400, has plenty to offer. A radical poet in his day, he confronted medieval audiences with their long-held views of corruption in the church, obscenity, racism, antisemitism and sexual violence.

Perhaps most famously, The Miller’s Tale (from Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales), depicts Nicholas’s rape of Alison. Chaucer describes how he “caughte hire by the queynte” – you’ll need to google it.

The tale is still banned in some parts of the United States. And while in the past students blushed and giggled at this passage, that’s not the case now. In a post-Trump world, they’re horrified.

If you studied Chaucer and don’t recall this episode as a depiction of rape, that’s understandable. It used to be taught as mildly risqué and entertaining, despite the fact Nicholas “held her hard by the thigh”, and Alison responded, “Let me be, Nicholas, Or I will cry out, help!”.

But Chaucer knew what he was doing. He challenged his audience to decide how to respond to such acts, even taunting “whoever does not want to hear it, Turn over the leaf and choose another tale”. But by doing so, Chaucer implied, they were avoiding reality.

Chaucer in the colonial world

Chaucer – or how his work has been used – also has another contemporary relevance. In New Zealand, he was very much used as a colonising text.

The first lectures ever given at Otago University when it opened in 1871 were on The Canterbury Tales. In fact, they were perhaps the earliest lectures on Chaucer anywhere in the world.

Otago’s first professor of English and Classics, George Sale, said he hoped studying Chaucer “may have the effect of making us better citizens” in a new country.

Chaucer was simplified, translated, the obscene passages expunged, and used to instil a picture of an ideal world. Some readers may recall learning how The Canterbury Tales show us a “slice of life” – if only the approved version.

Rather than relegating Chaucer to the past, studying his works helps us begin to acknowledge some uncomfortable truths about a colonial society.

Value and meaning

Dunedin is also home to one of the largest medieval manuscript collections in the southern hemisphere, dating from the 10th to 16th centuries. The motivation for collecting the manuscripts was to better educate Dunedin settlers in a way that valued European culture.

Charles Brasch, Esmond de Beer and Willi Fels – descendants of Bendix Hallenstein (1835–1905), the German-Jewish clothing manufacturer who came to Dunedin via Melbourne in 1873 – were devoted to collecting and donating artefacts to Tūhura Otago Museum and Otago University Library.

Similarly, Alfred H. Reed (1875–1975), the notable publisher and author, collected and donated a huge number of medieval manuscripts to the Dunedin Public Library, following his commitment to promote Christian values.

My students marvel at these medieval manuscript collections and the ancient books, with their intricate writing and gold illuminations. But we also discuss the broader implications of this European heritage in a colonial nation.

When I look across to the Otago Peninsula, I’m reminded of the 500-year-old waka recovered from Papanui inlet, now preserved at Ōtākou Marae. I ask my students why artefacts of a similar age, both right here in Dunedin, have been valued so differently in the past.

Who decides one is more important than the other? Chaucer’s works teach our students to question and challenge these aspects of their world. Just as he challenged his medieval audience, his works continue to challenge ideas about New Zealand’s colonial past.

Simone Celine Marshall does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Give Chaucer a chance! Why ‘dead white men’ can still be relevant in NZ’s classrooms – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232376

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Pok Man Leung, Research Fellow in Microbiology, Monash University

Three-quarters of all matter in the universe is made up of hydrogen. The young Earth was also rich in hydrogen, thanks to fierce geological and volcanic activity.

Just as stars burn hydrogen to produce heat and light through nuclear reactions, life emerged by extracting energy from this simple molecule via chemical reactions.

Some of these early life forms were archaea: an enigmatic third form of life only discovered in the 1970s. (The other two forms are bacteria and eukaryotes, the group that includes all animals, plants and fungi.)

We have studied thousands of species of archaea to understand how they have thrived for billions of years on our constantly changing planet. In their genetic blueprints we found instructions for producing special enzymes (called hydrogenases) to harvest energy from hydrogen gas, which lets them survive in some of the most punishing environments on Earth. Our latest research is published in Cell and Nature Communications.

A life powered by hydrogen

Archaea are found in places where no other life can survive. For example, some flourish in boiling hot springs where the water is so acidic it would dissolve iron.

Here, hydrogen is continually formed from the geothermal processes in Earth’s crust. Archaea devour this hydrogen to repair their bodies and even sometimes grow in otherwise deadly conditions.

We found some archaea can even make use of the minute amounts of hydrogen present in the air as an additional food source. This ability would likely help them survive transport through the atmosphere from one hydrogen-rich hot spring to another.

Surviving in the dark

Many archaea are not found on the surface, but live a humble life far underground. Plants and animals can’t survive in this environment because there is no light or oxygen to sustain them.

Archaea have found a solution: they break down deeply buried organic matter from plant or animal remains. They do so through a process called “hydrogen-forming fermentation”.

Just as in the process of beer fermentation yeasts convert sugar to produce carbon dioxide, these dark-dwelling archaea convert organic matter to produce hydrogen gas.

This process releases some energy, but only a little. To survive, some archaea form ultra-small cells to minimize their energy needs. Many are also parasites of other microbes, stealing organic matter to fuel their own growth.

Archaea making methane

Many archaea live in extreme environments, but some find a warm home in animals.

In the animal intestine, many bacteria help digest food through hydrogen-forming fermentation. But a group of archaea known as methanogens eat hydrogen and breathe out the potent greenhouse gas: methane.

Methanogens are especially abundant and active in the guts of cattle, which are responsible for around one-third of human-caused methane emissions. We have also been working on ways to inhibit the activity of gut methanogens to reduce these emissions.

These same archaea are also responsible for methane emissions from lots of other sources, from termite mounds to thawing permafrost and even trees.

Learning from archaea’s hydrogen economy

As our societies try to move away from fossil fuels, we may be able to learn from the hydrogen economy of archaea, which has thrived for billions of years.

Much of Earth’s hydrogen is tied up in water. (It’s the H in H₂O.) To extract the hydrogen and work with it, industries currently need expensive catalysts such as platinum. However, there are also biological hydrogen catalysts, enzymes called hydrogenases, that don’t require precious metals and work under a wider range of conditions.

We have found that some archaea make highly streamlined hydrogenases. These enzymes can form a basis for more efficient and economical hydrogen catalysts.

Hydrogen and the history of life

Perhaps hydrogen is a key to our future energy. But it’s worth mentioning that hydrogen also helps explains our past.

The first eukaryotes (the ancestors of all animals, plants and fungi) evolved some two billion years ago, when an archaeal cell and a bacterial cell merged together.

Why did they merge? The most widely accepted theory, known as “the hydrogen hypothesis”, suggests the merger of two cells allow them to more efficiently exchange hydrogen gas. A likely scenario is the archaeal cell survived by making hydrogen, which the bacterial cell then ate to make its own energy.

Eventually, this process gave rise to all eukaryotes over a billion years of evolution. Most modern eukaryotes, including humans, have since lost the ability to use hydrogen.

But traces of the ancient archaea and bacteria still exist. The body of our cells come from archaea, while the energy-producing organelles inside the cells called mitochondria are derived from bacteria.

Hydrogen may be simple, but it has helped create much of the complexity on Earth.

Chris Greening receives funding from the Australian Research Council, National Health & Medical Science Council, Australian Antarctic Division, Human Frontier Science Program, and Wellcome Trust.

Pok Man Leung does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Some of Earth’s most ancient lifeforms can live on hydrogen – and we can learn from their chemical powers – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231382

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Anne Twomey, Professor Emerita in Constitutional Law, University of Sydney

The South Australian government has proposed banning political donations because of the risk and the perception that they buy undue influence and fuel corruption. Premier Peter Malinauskas said the aim was to “give South Australians confidence that decisions are being made because they’re the right thing to do”, rather than reciprocation for donations.

Malinauskas also said legislation had been challenging to draft, with much thought given to how it would hold up if tested in the High Court.

So what is this law proposing? How likely is it to withstand legal challenges? And what might it mean for democracy?

What would the law do?

The proposed law would ban political parties and candidates (other than new entrants) from receiving political donations. Instead, they would be provided with public funding for both campaigning and party administration. Campaign spending by political parties and candidates would be capped during the period prior to a state election to keep the cost of public funding down.

Political parties could still receive party membership fees of up to A$100 per member. This is intended to encourage parties to engage with the community and seek to broaden their membership. Otherwise, there is a real risk that if parties are fully supported by government handouts, they lose touch with the community.

Outside influence on campaigns

One of the biggest difficulties with political donation reform is the dilemma of how to treat third-party campaigners. These are the people and organisations that are not running for election themselves, but have a political interest to push. They include environmentalists, charities, miners, welfare groups, business groups, trade unions, pubs and clubs, and Indigenous bodies. If they spend more than a certain amount on political expenditure in the period prior to an election, they need to register.

Attempts to muzzle third-party campaigners, such as trade unions, from communicating their views during election campaigns have previously been struck down by the High Court. This is most likely why this new scheme would not place any caps on political donations to third parties or on their electoral expenditure. All third parties will have to do is meet disclosure requirements of donations, debts and spending. They will also have to use a “state campaign account” for receiving donations and for political expenditure.

The risk is once political parties and candidates are banned from receiving donations and have capped spending, political donations will instead flow to third parties, which can receive and spend as much as they like.

This gives significant political power to third-party interest groups, which can use their spending power to pressure parties and candidates to support their causes. It has the potential to distort election campaigns, with well-funded interest groups dominating the discourse and forcing political parties to dance to their tune.

A better approach may be to impose carefully calibrated expenditure caps on third parties, which allow them to communicate their political views effectively, but not to dominate the campaign at the expense of parties and candidates.

Rules around ‘associated entities’

When spending caps are applied, it is necessary to prevent parties from subverting them by establishing associated entities as third parties with their own separate caps, or in the South Australian case, no expenditure cap at all.

The proposed law prohibits arrangements between a political party and a third party to circumvent the expenditure cap. In addition, any donation to an “associated entity” is treated as a donation made to the party with which it is associated.

Controversially, the definition of an associated entity expressly excludes “registered industrial organisations” (trade unions). However, affiliation fees by trade unions are treated as donations and would fall within the donation ban.

Favouring the incumbents

Another problem with public funding schemes is that they are usually skewed towards major parties and incumbent politicians. This is because they are tied to the number of first-preference votes candidates receive and/or the number of seats a party wins at the election.

For example, once donations are banned, the SA scheme will provide funding for party administration between elections. Funding will be allocated to a registered political party according its number of MPs. The funding therefore not only favours incumbents, but also has the effect of favouring the government (which ordinarily has the most MPs) over the opposition and minor parties, even though all parties face many of the same administrative costs.

While 50% of this funding must be used for administration, the rest may be used for election expenditure. This effectively boosts the amount available to incumbent parties and favours the party that won the most seats at the previous election.

Independent MPs are given a smaller administrative assistance amount, which can be used for any purpose. In addition, MPs have staff and various allowances that give them a significant campaigning advantage.

New political parties and new independent candidates don’t get any of this support. Their only compensation is that they are exempt from the ban on political donations, so they can raise donations capped at $2,700.

There are also distinctions regarding advance funding for election campaigns. Under the SA scheme, registered political parties can claim a portion of their election campaign funding in advance, calculated by reference to first preference votes given to the party’s endorsed candidates at the previous general election.

As new entrants have no previous election results, they only have advance access to a relatively small fixed amount per endorsed candidate. They also cannot claim it unless they can list sufficient numbers of electors who endorse them (100 for a House of Assembly candidate and 500 for a Legislative Council candidate). If they don’t gain at least 4% of first preference votes at the ensuing election, they are entitled to no public funding at all.

Why does this matter? First, because a healthy democracy needs to accommodate newcomers, competition and disruption. A law that protects and supports existing parties only is likely to result in political stagnation and the loss of public engagement in politics.

Second, the High Court in the Australian Capital Television case struck down the validity of a law concerning political advertising on the grounds that it unfairly favoured incumbents. The law banned political advertising on electronic media, except for free political ads, 90% of which were allocated to parties with elected members, based on their proportion of first-preference votes at the previous election.

Only 10% of the free airtime was allocated to new and independent candidates. This was insufficient to save the law. Justice McHugh argued one cannot seek to justify a law as levelling the playing field if it “favours the sitting members and their political parties at the expense of the views of those who do not hold political power”.

Whether the SA scheme has done enough to support new entrants will be a matter for the High Court to assess if the scheme is challenged.

Constitutional challenges

Any law that has the effect of limiting political advertising is vulnerable to challenge for breaching the constitutionally implied freedom of political communication. In addition to the risk the law might be too skewed in favour of incumbents, the High Court has also previously struck down a law that sought to ban political donations from any organisation or person other than an enrolled voter.

In that case, however, there was a gap between the amount of public funding provided and the expenditure cap, which the party had to fund, including by donations. Whether a ban that goes even further (prohibiting all political donations) would be valid may depend upon the relationship between the expenditure cap and the various types of funding payable to parties, independents and new entrants.

Read more:
Political donations rules are finally in the spotlight – here’s what the government should do

Could this happen federally?

The federal government has signalled its interest in electoral reform. We don’t yet know its plans.

But one of the advantages of the federal system is reform experiments can be undertaken by states on a smaller scale. The rest of the country can then see whether they work and should be adopted elsewhere.

The SA proposal is one such experiment. If it passes, survives any constitutional challenges and fulfils its aims, others may well adopt it. But it needs to prove itself first.

Anne Twomey has received grants from the Australian Research Council and occasionally does consultancy work for governments, parliaments and inter-governmental bodies. She also sometimes sits on government committees, including as a civil society member of the Open Government Partnership. She is a consultant at Gilbert + Tobin Lawyers.

– ref. South Australia’s plan to ban political donations raises big risks as well as benefits – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232383

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Stella Boyd-Ford, Research Fellow with the Grow&Go Toolbox, The University of Queensland

Gathering as a family for a meal can serve several purposes: from social connection to nutrition. But this can also make eating and mealtimes tricky to manage when someone in the family is neurodivergent.

Many autistic children and children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) display what has been called “abnormal feeding behaviours”. Children may develop these behaviours as a way to cope with the complex task of mealtimes.

The skills involved in mealtimes such as recognising feelings of hunger and thirst, completing tasks in a set order, processing all kinds of sensory input, using fine motor skills, and interacting socially can be challenging. With meals occurring up to six times a day, the whole activity can become daunting. But not getting enough to eat can have a negative effect on behaviour, learning and health.

So, what can you do to help your child get what they need at mealtimes?

Common behaviours

Common abnormal feeding behaviours in autistic children and children with ADHD include:

• food selectivity, where a child has a small range of preferred foods and limited variety. For example, children choosing only grain-based or dairy foods, such as noodles and yoghurt, or toast and cheese.
• strong preferences in how food is prepared and presented, including brands or tableware used – such as only accepting hot chips from one source, or only being able to use one bowl or fork
• hypersensitivity to textures, such as needing foods to be very crunchy or preferring foods that are smooth like puree
• overeating or undereating due to differences in how children understand and respond to body signals, a sense known as “interoception”. This can mean they go long periods without eating, or graze throughout the day
• avoiding eating with others, choosing instead to eat in the lounge room or their bedroom
• inflexibility around mealtime routines due to a drive for consistency and sameness to feel safe. This means eating in different places, at different times, or having unfamiliar foods becomes challenging
• difficulty transitioning to mealtimes due to hyperfocus on a preferred task.

Getting enough fuel

While some children can meet their nutrition requirements despite these challenges, others face more serious consequences. Sometimes these difficulties can impact their growth, lead to vitamin or mineral deficiencies, cause stomach or gut issues, and even increase the risk of developing chronic diseases later in life.

It also has a significant impact on the daily lives of parents and caregivers navigating these challenges while trying to provide food for their children.

Parents struggle to know how best to approach mealtimes and worry about the potential health impacts of their child’s diet.

Instead of panicking, punishing or trying to “fix” these behaviours, a more supportive mealtime approach that acknowledges and accommodates the child’s needs can be a better strategy.

5 ways to support children with different mealtime needs

There are ways you can make mealtimes more manageable and nutritious, while acknowledging challenges and preferences. Here are six things to try:

1. Identify safe foods – if your child prefers a particular food or type of food (such as salty, crunchy, sour), try to find “safe foods” within each core food group (grains, meats and fish, fruit, vegetables, and dairy). Offering these foods may help increase your child’s intake of key nutrients from each food group in a way that suits their sensory preferences.

2. A special plate, spoon or set – if your child prefers specific tableware, allow them to use it in and out of the home. This will mean taking items with you when dining out. Introduce new types of tableware outside of mealtimes and use them in play (such as a pretend cafe or shop) or other activities to build familiarity before using them at mealtimes

3. Offer regular meals and snacks – differences in interoception, or how we feel bodily sensations, can mean neurodivergent children do not interpret feelings of hunger and thirst as neurotypical people do. So your child might not be able to tell if they are hungry or full easily. Offer food on a predicable schedule (roughly every two to three hours). Some children will also get a sense of safety from regular routines

4. Keep offering a mix of foods – children may go through phases of wanting only one type of food. This can be due to sensory-seeking behaviours, a need for sameness, or fixations on topics or items. A supportive approach is to offer familiar, safe foods with other foods from the core food groups or the family meal. It is important to continue provide opportunities everyday for your child to try a range of foods. This might look like offering them some of your dinner on a side plate, or allowing them to serve themselves from a selection of preferred and non-preferred foods

5. Manage sensory input – some children find mealtimes overwhelming due to the sensory input from smells, tastes, textures, sounds and even the sight of food and eating. To help your child manage sensory input, consider using headphones to reduce noise, using a fan to divert strong smells, or offering cold foods. Your child might need distractions like watching TV, using fidget toys or listening to music. Always set them a place at the family table and encourage them to eat with the family, but allow them to move to a separate quiet space if they feel overwhelmed.

Worth the effort

Taking a neuroaffirming approach to eating can significantly reduce the stress experienced by children at mealtimes. Making them feel better understood and more accepted can even lead to a healthier diet over time.

For more advice on feeding neurodivergent children, check out The Grow&Go Toolbox.

Stella Boyd-Ford has previously recieved funding from the Department of Health and Aged Care through a Preventative Health and Chronic Disease Grant.

Clare Dix receives funding from the Department of Health and Aged Care through a Preventive Health and Chronic Disease grant to create the Grow&Go Toolbox.

– ref. Mealtimes can be tough when your child is autistic or has ADHD. Here are 5 tips to try – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231061

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Asma Aziz, Senior Lecturer in Power Engineering, Edith Cowan University

When you graph electricity demand in power grids with lots of solar panels, it looks a bit like a duck, with high points in the morning and evening (when people are relying on the grid) and a big dip in the middle of the day (when many people use their own solar instead and need less from the grid). This is known as the “duck curve”. While it sounds cute, it’s become a significant challenge for energy utilities worldwide.

That’s because solar stops supplying power to the grid just before the evening surge in demand, when people get home from work. That puts more strain on the grid, and props up the case for the fossil fuel generators, creating economic challenges for utilities.

In the United States, California is showing there is a clear solution – use grid-scale batteries to store excess solar power for use later that evening.

This year, the Golden State has enough battery storage to begin pushing gas out of the grid in the evenings.

This should embolden Australian authorities, who have begun building large-scale battery storage to soak up cheap solar.

What does California’s experience show us?

Authorities in California have been wrestling with the duck curve for years. The state is an economic giant – the fifth largest economy in the world – and has one of the world’s largest state grids, with a large and mature solar market.

In 2019, large-scale batteries started appearing in California’s grid. The sector has seen tremendous growth, soaring 1,250% in five years, from 770 million watts to 10 billion watts). We can now see the results. The famous duck curve is being reshaped. Abundant solar is being shifted to the evening peak.

Solar and batteries are a natural fit. Pairing them offers a win-win model for future energy grids, turning cheap but time-limited electricity from solar into a much more versatile commodity: electricity on demand.

For two hours on one evening this April, batteries set a new record, becoming the largest source of power on the grid by discharging about 6.7 billion watts of power.

What can Australia learn?

California’s rapid scaling of utility-scale battery storage is due to ambitious procurement mandates and a market structure permitting batteries to help meet energy needs. Utility-scale battery storage in the US is concentrated in Texas and California, with some form of energy storage policies adopted in another 16 states.

The state’s rapid ramp-up of battery storage is a good sign for Australia. With large solar farms and millions of rooftop solar arrays, Australian energy market operators have become familiar with the duck curve.

Last year, renewables supplied close to 40% of power to our main grid, the National Energy Market, covering eastern and southern states, and Western Australia’s largest grid, the South West Integrated System. Ten major coal-fired power stations have retired in the last decade.

At the end of 2023, Australia had 2,600 million watts of utility-scale battery storage. But there’s a lot more in the wings – 11 billion watts are under construction.

Even so, more has to be done. Australia’s market operator forecasts 20% of renewable energy production will be spilled or curtailed – that is, not make it to the grid – by 2050. This isn’t necessarily a bad thing.

Timing is going to be crucial. We need new generation, storage and backup capacity in place before more coal plants can be retired.

How much storage is enough?

Cleaning up the electric grid is a huge job. We will need a lot of energy storage, which can be provided by batteries, pumped hydro and even abandoned mineshafts. Grid batteries have the advantage of being here, now. You can install them in a matter of weeks. By contrast, building new pumped hydro will take years.

If we overestimate the role of energy storage, we risk destabilising the grid. But if we underestimate it, we could slow investment and delay the shift to clean energy.

As California is demonstrating, battery storage can play a significant role in grid reliability by balancing supply and demand fluctuations and providing backup power during outages, while also integrating intermittent renewable energy sources effectively. But it’s no silver bullet – it has inherent limitations.

Assessing storage capacity is complicated by its finite nature, with duration a key factor determining its capacity contribution. Home batteries provide up to two hours of dispatchable energy, meaning discharging at their maximum power capacity. For grid-scale installations, shallow storage offers up to 4 hours, medium storage 4–12 hours, and deep storage over 12 hours.

Adding big batteries isn’t as simple as plugging one in and charging it from the sun. They make it easier to bring more renewable power into the grid by soaking up solar or wind which might have otherwise not been used. But their value to the grid can change significantly depending on where you place it and the time of day.

To maximise their use, we could, for instance, build large batteries in regions rich in renewables and make the most of scarce capacity on transmission lines or build them near areas with high energy demand to help manage peak demand by boosting network capacity.

California requires energy storage systems to provide full power for at least 4 hours. But in Australia, most large batteries can only last 2 hours or less, as they are designed to meet short-term energy needs.

This is beginning to change, with growing interest in longer-lasting storage to boost long-term grid reliability. Deep storage projects planned or under way in Australia’s National Electricity Market include Snowy 2.0, which would have 7 days of storage supply.

New South Wales and Western Australia are accelerating the rollout of longer duration grid batteries, such as NSW’s Richmond Valley Battery Energy Storage System (8 hours duration) and WA’s Tesla-Neoen battery (4 hours).

Over the next few years, we can expect to see demand soar for longer-duration electricity storage. Once built, these batteries and other technologies will help Australia, too, banish the duck curve.

Authorities need to set clear timelines for fossil fuel plant closure and invest in new power sources to replace it, as well as boosting storage.

Read more:
Should we worry about wasting renewable energy? Here’s why ‘spilling’ excess power is expected – and efficient

Asma Aziz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Big batteries are solving a longstanding problem with solar power in California. Can they do the same for Australia? – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231063

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Park Thaichon, Associate Professor of Marketing, University of Southern Queensland

What cost-of-living crisis? Millions of Australians are expected to spend A$10.1 billion during the end of financial year (EOFY) sales.

Many products, from cars and holiday packages to clothing and white goods will be available at marked down prices over the next few weeks.

Clothing and accessories will attract the biggest spend, followed by electronics and technology, household items and decorations and then appliances and white goods.

To put the estimated $10.1 billion EOFY spend in perspective, in 2023 Australians spent $361 billion on retail goods, with $63.6 billion of that spent online.

With such high spending, consumers need to make informed decisions to maximise their savings and avoid pitfalls.

Buyer beware

It is important to understand the return and exchange policies of the different retail stores.

Most retailers allow shoppers who change their mind up to 30 days to return and receive a refund or exchange the product. Some may have shorter return periods or may not accept returns on sale items.

These items are sometimes referred to as final sales, non-refundable purchases, last-chance deals, no-return sales and clearance items. This means if a customer bought something on sale and later doesn’t want it, they can’t return or exchange it.

Some retailers have specific conditions about where items can be returned. For example, David Jones requires boutique brands to be returned to specific branch locations. For example, items purchased instore from Chanel can only be returned at Elizabeth Street and Bourke Street Mall branches.

Other conditions might include no refunds/no exchanges on large electrical items, furniture or mattresses unless faulty or damaged. Or retailers may only offer instore credit or charge a 25% restocking fee when a customer cancels an order for a large or bulky item.

Many retailers, such as streetwear brand Culture Kings, also require a payment if the return process involves shipping.

As well as these conditions, retailers require any returned items to be in their original condition and sometimes, their original packaging. Being aware of these policies can help customers make more informed decisions and avoid being stuck with items they don’t want.

What to buy and where to get it

Certain items, such as off-season clothing, electronics and furniture are often discounted during EOFY sales, making it a good time to get them at reduced cost.

However, some items, like the latest Playstation or newest smart phone, may not be as heavily discounted and might be better bought at other times of the year.

Shoppers should also avoid buying items they are unlikely to use or consume before they expire including perishable goods like food, cosmetics and vitamins.

It’s also important to consider the value of the item and whether the discount offered during sales justifies the purchase, especially for big-ticket items that may require significant storage space or maintenance.

Customers should also consider where to buy their items. Online retailers often have competitive prices and a wide selection, but some customers may prefer to see the item before they purchase instore.

Multi-channel shopping is a combination of both instore and online shopping. It gives customers the flexibility to choose how and where they want to browse and purchase.

For example, some customers prefer to touch, feel and try a product instore but then make the purchase online for convenience, taking advantage of any free shipping offers and online discount.

Pressure tactics

It is important to be wary any deceptive tactics to persuade you to buy unwanted products.

For example, some stores might use misleading advertising or pressure tactics to convince customers to make purchases with the feeling of fear of missing out (FOMO).

Our research found FOMO played a role in panic buying.

During the EOFY sales, businesses may try to create a sense of urgency by claiming that items are selling out quickly or prices will increase soon.

For example, online sites might state a product is “low in stock”, “151 items have been sold today” or “25 people are watching this item”.

By being aware these tactics are intended to lock them into buying, customers can take their time to consider purchases carefully and avoid being swayed into buying things they do not really want or need.

Ultimately, the best approach for customers is to plan ahead, research prices and shop around to find the best deals for their needs.

Why we have EOFY sales

The original purpose of the EOFY is to mark the end of a 12-month accounting period for businesses and individuals. EOFY sales help businesses clear out last year’s stock and make way for new.

Moving stock also helps to improve the bottom line by converting unsold goods into revenue.

If consumers are savvy, they can find ways to make savings while also putting money back into the economy.

Park Thaichon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. What you should know before you start chasing bargains at the EOFY sales – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232568

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By James Greenslade-Yeats, Research Fellow in Management, Auckland University of Technology

New Zealand’s understaffed and underfunded midwifery sector is hoping to benefit from increased health funding announced in the 2024 budget. The government has promised NZ$8.15 billion in additional operating capital for the health system, with $3.44 billion earmarked for hospital and speciality services and $2.12 billion for primary care and public health.

So far, the exact amount earmarked for midwives is unclear. But it urgently needs to be sufficient, given the state of the profession.

There are currently around 3,300 midwives registered in New Zealand. Of these, 33% work in the community under a caseload model (working independently and on-call), while 47% work in hospitals and other facilities on rostered shifts. Approximately 95% of births have a midwife as the lead maternity carer.

Despite it’s role in the health system, midwifery is currently understaffed by 40%. Making matters worse, many midwives are nearing retirement age. There is also a high attrition rate among both recently qualified midwives and students.

To cover the current staffing shortfall, the number of midwives who qualify each year needs to increase by 300%. But 42% of student midwives never complete their qualification, often because they can’t afford to. Some reports suggest student midwives feel like they’re being used as unpaid labour to plug holes in the workforce.

What really affects midwives

Our ongoing research aims to understand midwives’ physical and mental health – and how structural elements of the profession can have a detrimental effect.

One key factor affecting recognition and funding is the profession’s uniquely gendered structure. In 2023, only eight midwives in Aotearoa identified as male and five as gender diverse. The predominance of women has been linked to a lack of professional recognition.

Historically, “women’s work” in healthcare has been equated with a “labour of love” — something done for intrinsic rewards rather than pay and other forms of external recognition.

COVID-19 and midwifery

Further research during COVID-19 highlighted the importance of these factors. At the end of 2020, we surveyed 215 registered midwives about how working through lockdowns influenced their physical and mental health.

We found midwives’ individual health was inextricably linked to their profession’s place in wider society. Midwives felt they were fulfilling a duty towards society by working through the pandemic.

They felt it was important they were acknowledged and valued for their work. When they experienced such acknowledgement, midwives said they had the energy and courage to keep working through trying circumstances.

However, midwives all too often felt their work was undervalued and poorly supported. As one participant said:

I felt frustrated and totally undervalued by New Zealand when all I heard on the news and in the media was about how hard the GPs were working doing virtual visits, and how Plunket had to change the way they worked by doing virtual visits, but no mention of the frontline midwives who were out doing the visits and seeing the women, attending labours, [conducting] urgent assessments and additional postnatal visits because everyone else had stopped.

Midwives also felt their professional invisibility was a key reason they lacked support from healthcare bodies, especially with personal protective equipment (PPE) provision. As another midwife explained:

The lack of PPE available was very concerning. We realised midwives are at the bottom of the pile for considerations, unseen by the govt and the public. Supermarket workers had better PPE and support.

This lack of support seriously threatened midwives’ health and safety, not to mention that of their families.

As one midwife explained:

At the time I was pregnant and was terrified. I had suffered several miscarriages in the past and was finally holding my pregnancy only to have COVID come along. I felt that I was putting myself in danger and felt forced to do so to provide care to other pregnant women.

Critically, midwives’ perceptions of professional invisibility were not unique to the pandemic. COVID-19 merely heightened their sense of being undervalued.

Another midwife told us:

I think most people take our role for granted at the best of times and do not understand the impact that the demands of this role play on our physical and mental wellbeing. I do think this was heightened during [the] COVID response, as everyone was more vulnerable and on edge. But as always, I think there is an unreal expectation that we should put everyone else’s wellbeing ahead of our own.

Valuing New Zealand’s midwives

To ensure the future sustainability of New Zealand’s maternity care system, midwives need to be more highly valued, including by increased investment in training and support.

To this end, the New Zealand College of Midwives is strongly in favour of “earn as you learn” schemes.

There also needs to be greater compensation for on-call midwives, and increased funding for maternity wards and units around the country.

Valuing midwives doesn’t need to be limited to financial measures. Our research shows midwives care deeply about their work and clients. But it also highlights that to create a sustainable future for the profession, midwives’ love of the job needs to be matched with external recognition and support.

The research on midwives’ wellbeing was written with Dr Tanya Ewertowska and Dr Nimbus Awhina Staniland.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. NZ needs a 300% increase in qualified midwives – and those working need more support and recognition – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231808

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Scott Denning, Professor of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University

Curious Kids is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskidsus@theconversation.com.

My parents said the planet is getting too hot for people to live here. They called it climate change. What does that mean? – Joseph, age 12, Boise, Idaho

Many countries have seen extremely hot weather lately, but in most of the inhabited world, it’s never going to get “too hot for people to live here,” especially in relatively dry climates.

When it’s hot outside in dry places, most of the time our bodies can cool off by evaporating water and heat from our skin as sweat.

However, there are places where it occasionally gets dangerously hot and humid, especially where hot deserts are right next to the warm ocean. When the air is humid, sweat doesn’t evaporate as quickly, so sweating doesn’t cool us the way it does in drier environments.

In parts of the Middle East, Pakistan and India, summer heat waves can combine with humid air that blows in off the sea, and this combination can be truly deadly. Hundreds of millions of people live in those regions, most without access to indoor air conditioning.

Scientists like me use a “wet bulb thermometer” to get a better sense of this risk. A wet bulb thermometer allows water to evaporate by blowing ambient air over a damp cloth. If the wet bulb temperature is over 95 F (35 C), and even at lower levels, the human body won’t be able to let enough heat out. Prolonged exposure to such combined heat and humidity can be fatal.

During a severe heat wave in 2023, wet bulb temperatures were very high over the lower Mississippi Valley, though they didn’t reach fatal levels. In Delhi, India, where air temperatures were over 120 degree Fahrenheit (49 Celsius) for several days in May 2024, the wet bulb temperatures came close, and several people died from suspected heatstroke in the hot and humid weather. In conditions like that, everyone has to take precautions.

Is it climate change?

When people burn carbon – whether it’s coal in a power plant or gasoline in a vehicle – it creates carbon dioxide (CO₂). This invisible gas builds up in the atmosphere and traps the Sun’s warmth near the Earth’s surface.

The result is what we mean by “climate change.”

Every bit of coal, oil or gas that ever gets burned adds a little bit more to the temperature. As temperatures rise, dangerously hot and humid weather has begun to spread to more places.

Areas of the U.S. Gulf Coast in Louisiana and Texas are increasingly at risk of dangerous hot and humid conditions in summer, as are heavily irrigated areas of the desert Southwest where water sprayed over farm fields adds moisture to the atmosphere.

Climate change causes a lot more problems than just hot, sweaty weather.

Hot air evaporates a lot more water, so crops, forests and landscapes in some areas dry out, which makes them more susceptible to wildfire. Each Celsius degree of warming can cause a sixfold increase in wildfire over parts of the western U.S.

Warming also makes ocean water expand, which can flood coastal regions. Rising sea levels threaten to displace as many as 2 billion people by 2100.

All of these impacts mean that climate change threatens the global economy. Continuing to burn coal, oil and gas could cut global incomes by about 25% by the end of the century, according to one estimate.

Good news and bad news

There’s both bad news and good news about climate change in the future.

The bad news is that as long as we keep burning carbon, it will continue to get hotter and hotter.

The good news is that we can substitute clean energy, like solar and wind power, for burning carbon to power the products and services of modern life.

There’s been tremendous progress in the past 15 years in making clean energy reliable and affordable, and almost every country on Earth has now agreed to stop climate change before too much damage is done.

Just as our ancestors built better lives by switching from outhouses to indoor plumbing, we will avoid making our world unlivable by switching from coal, oil and gas to clean energy.

Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.

And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.

Scott Denning has received funding from the National Science Foundation.

– ref. Is Earth really getting too hot for people to survive? A scientist explains extreme heat and the role of climate change – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231472

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Toni Patricia Brackin, Professor of Accounting and Deputy Head of School – Business, University of Southern Queensland

This article is part of The Conversation’s “Business Basics” series where we ask leading experts to discuss key concepts in business, economics and finance.

A company is a business that is established as a separate legal entity to its founders – like a person, it can be sued and incur debt. Importantly, not all businesses are companies – they can also be sole traders, partnerships or trusts.

But incorporating – becoming a company – isn’t cheap or easy, attracting a host of new fees and obligations for a business.

Yet, in Australia, companies remain the most common type of business. So why is becoming a company so popular, even for many small businesses?

You might think tax is the answer. The 25% corporate tax rate paid by small companies is much lower than the highest marginal tax rate for individuals of 45%.

If it were as simple as that, we might all go out and incorporate ourselves to pay less tax. But the picture is more complicated, and the trade-offs differ significantly between businesses.

So, how is a company taxed differently to an individual, sole trader or partnership? And if companies are “people” too – why is it any different from the rest of us?

Read more:
Suddenly, there’s talk about Labor reforming company tax. What did minister Ed Husic say, and what might actually work?

A business that’s also a “person”

In the eyes of the law, companies are treated as a separate legal entity (assuming directors have acted appropriately). This means that a company’s owners are not personally liable for the company’s debt, allowing them to take bolder business risks without fear of personal financial ruin.

This distinction flows to the tax system, where a company is treated as a separate taxpayer. But instead of marginal rates of tax that increase as taxable income increases (as with individuals), companies pay a flat rate of tax on all their taxable income.

Currently, the Australian company tax rate is either the default rate of 30%, or a reduced rate of 25% for companies with revenue less than A$50 million.

Companies calculate taxable income in much the same way as individuals do. Subtracting allowable deductions from assessable income over a year gives you a company’s taxable income.

They also make “pay-as-you-go” instalments of tax throughout the year (based on the previous year’s tax return), either monthly or quarterly. Typically, when a company lodges its tax return each year, most of its tax has already been paid.

In contrast, running a business as a “sole trader” means you and your business are effectively the same legal entity – your business’s income is your income.

The other structure options, partnerships and trusts, are also not separate legal entities. In these arrangements, parties have agreed to create legal relationships to conduct certain business activities together.

A partnership or trust must report its net income to the tax office, but it is the individual partners or beneficiaries of a trust who pay tax on their share of partnership or trust income. The main tax benefit of these models is the ability to split income between a number of partners or beneficiaries.

Do companies actually pay less tax?

Here’s a simple example comparing tax payable by a business operating as a sole trader, compared to the same business structured as a company.

Under 2024 rates, if you owned a small business as a sole trader and had a taxable income of $200,000, you would pay total tax as an individual of $64,667 (including the Medicare levy).

But if that same business was structured as a company, the tax payable by the company would be $50,000 (at the 25% reduced tax rate). Put simply, incorporation into a company structure would seem to save this small business $14,667 in tax every year.

But wait! It’s not that simple. We need to talk about what happens after the company has paid tax.

These earnings are sitting in the company’s bank account, and belong to the company – a separate legal entity. But the individual who owns it needs the ability to spend money on personal items, eat and go on holidays.

Eventually, money needs to flow to a company’s owners. This could take the form of salaries paid to directors or shareholders as employees or dividends distributed between the owners. This is then assessed as part of their personal income.

But we avoid taxing twice

In Australia, we have an “imputation” system for company taxation.

Profits of a company paid to a shareholder as dividends are the taxable income of the shareholder. But the company has already paid the relevant rate of company tax on these profits.

To avoid taxing the same income twice, those dividends come with an attached “franking” credit for any tax already paid by the company on that income.

Read more:
Words that matter. What’s a franking credit? What’s dividend imputation? And what’s ‘retiree tax’?

Using our above example, let’s assume our small business owner has now incorporated a company and decided to pay themselves the entire remaining after-tax profit of their company as a dividend.

Here’s the calculation:

After all is said and done, the business has the same total tax bill as before: $64,667!

This illustration certainly oversimplifies the picture. There are many potential alternatives to the above example, such as paying a smaller fixed amount as a salary instead of the dividend or splitting income across multiple shareholders.

Companies also don’t need to pay out all their profit as dividends every year – the flow of income to individuals can be deferred.

The issues with corporate tax avoidance across the world are well reported. However, these types of tax avoidance are typically achieved by deliberately abusing various loopholes in the law, not through the company structure itself.

Though it’s sometimes argued, the reality is that tax savings should not be (and generally aren’t) the primary motivation for using a company structure. Other advantages, such as limiting business and personal risk, ease of growth, expansion and continuity are bigger factors in choosing a business structure.

Toni Patricia Brackin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Business basics: how do companies pay tax? – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232486

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Nathan Cooper, Associate Professor of Law, University of Waikato

With no new investment to combat climate change in last month’s budget, and a long list of cuts to climate and environment-related areas, the government risks damaging its global reputation.

The Climate Resilience for Māori initiative has been scrapped, along with mātauranga Māori approaches to agricultural emissions reduction. There is reduced funding for the Climate Change Commission, which advises the government on policies to achieve legislated emissions targets.

Freshwater and native forest planting initiatives will be scaled back, along with reduced biosecurity monitoring.

Also cut are programmes to develop a national circular economy and bioeconomy strategy for waste reduction and the “Jobs for Nature” initiative, which was due to run until 2026.

More adaptation, less mitigation

Climate Change Minister Simon Watts affirmed the government’s commitment to “support New Zealand to reduce emissions and adapt to the future effects of climate change”, reflecting an established two-pronged approach through:

• mitigation (reducing emissions and increasing sinks for greenhouse gases)

• and adaptation (measures such as flood defences and managed retreat to protect communities and infrastructure from climate impacts).

Of course, responding to climate change effectively will require both. But a closer look at the government’s priorities, as indicated by this budget, suggests there’s more appetite for adaptation to ensure communities, jobs, industries and homes are prepared to withstand the impacts of climate change.

Mitigation seems a lesser priority, especially if it means further regulating industries and potentially affecting the jobs they currently support.

However, easing off on mitigation means more severe and costly adaptation in the future. This raises questions about how fiscally responsible this budget really is.

The Climate Change Commission reminds us that:

Investing in emissions reduction, which is needed across all sectors – energy, buildings, transport, food and industry – is an investment in our future.

The longer we wait to cut emissions, the more the costs of climate change will compound. Mitigation now, alongside adaption is likely to be the more fiscally responsible choice over the long term.

No surprise

The rolling back of environmental protections and climate action advanced by the previous Labour administration comes as no surprise. None of the coalition parties campaigned on so called green credentials.

Environment and climate change portfolios have been removed from Cabinet. The government last week announced it will repeal Labour’s ban on offshore oil and gas exploration. It also plans to double mineral exports by 2035 and the Fast-track Approvals Bill is currently going through the select committee process.

Resources Minister and NZ First MP Shane Jones argues the bill is necessary to counter “New Zealand’s excessive levels of environmental protection”.

Climate obligations

Despite this rollback, the government still has climate change responsibilities at home and internationally. These include administering the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme, setting emissions budgets and preparing emissions reduction and national adaptation plans.

Also, under the Paris Agreement and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the climate change minister must set a pledge, known as a nationally determined contribution (NDC), to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This is due in 2025.

So how is the coalition positioned to deliver on New Zealand’s climate change obligations?

Internationally, the next big test will come this November, at the UNFCCC’s next annual climate summit COP29. The focus will be on climate finance, investing to increase resilience to extreme weather and ensuring developing countries can afford to transition away from fossil fuels.

Despite its size, New Zealand’s position in international climate negotiations carries weight, not least as a regional leader in the Pacific. For many Pacific island countries, climate finance is hugely important. Attention will be on New Zealand to once again show bold leadership and increase contributions to global climate finance.

Next year’s NDC is required to be more ambitious than the previous one. Like many countries, New Zealand’s current NDC is widely acknowledged to be insufficient to limit global temperature rise to 2°C above pre-industrial levels.

That’s despite being set by a Labour government much keener to claim green credentials than the current coalition. It’s going to be difficult for this government to ratchet up the NDC, while also reducing environmental protections and removing economic roadblocks.

Perhaps there is a way forward by looking again at how some industry players are connecting emissions reduction with good business. Internationally, trade agreements such as the recently negotiated deal with the EU reflect that consumers and businesses have become more climate conscious. A genuinely ambitious NDC could be the smartest choice to keep New Zealand’s exports competitive.

Like so much in politics, it’s about balancing competing priorities and looking for the compromise. But the current mood music from this government doesn’t make for easy listening for anyone serious about doing our fair share on climate change and challenging the assumption that economy versus environment must be a zero-sum game.

Nathan Cooper does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Budget cuts to climate funding mean NZ may now struggle to meet its international obligations – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232245

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Niusha Shafiabady, Associate Professor in Computational Intelligence, Charles Darwin University

By now, all of us have heard and read a lot about artificial intelligence (AI). You’ve likely used some of the countless AI tools that are becoming available. For some, AI feels like a magic wand that predicts the future.

But AI is not perfect. A supermarket meal planner in Aotearoa New Zealand gave customers poisonous recipes, a New York City chatbot advised people to break the law, and Google’s AI Overview is telling people to eat rocks.

At its core, an AI tool is a particular system that addresses a particular problem. With any AI system, we should match our expectations to its abilities – and many of those come down to how the AI was built.

Let’s explore some inherent shortcomings of AI systems.

Trouble in the real world

One of the inherent issues for all AI systems is that they are not 100% accurate in real-world settings. For example, a predictive AI system will be trained using data points from the past.

If the AI then comes across something new – not similar to anything in the training data – it most likely won’t be able to make the correct decision.

As a hypothetical example, let’s take a military plane equipped with an AI-powered autopilot system. This system will function thanks to its training “knowledge base”. But an AI really isn’t a magic wand, it’s just mathematical computations. An adversary could create obstacles the plane AI cannot “see” because they are not in the training data, leading to potentially catastrophic consequences.

Unfortunately, there is not much we can do about this problem apart from trying to train the AI for all possible circumstances that we know of. This can sometimes be an insurmountable task.

Bias in the training data

You may have heard about AI making biased decisions. Usually, bias happens when we have unbalanced data. In simple terms, this means that when training the AI system, we are showing it too many examples of one type of outcome and very few of another type.

Let’s take the example of an AI system trained to predict the likelihood a given individual will commit a crime. If the crime data used for training the system mostly contains people from group A (say, a particular ethnicity) and very few from group B, the system won’t learn about both groups equally.

As a result, its predictions for group A will make it seem these people are more likely to commit crimes compared to people from group B. If the system is used uncritically, the presence of this bias can have severe ethical consequences.

Thankfully, developers can address this issue by “balancing” the data set. This can involve different approaches, including the use of synthetic data – computer-generated, pre-labelled data built for testing and training AI that has checks built into it to protect against bias.

Being out of date

Another issue with AI can arise when it’s been trained “offline” and isn’t up to date with the dynamics of the problem it is meant to work on.

A simple example would be an AI system developed to predict daily temperature in a city. Its training data contain all the past information on temperature data for this location.

After the AI has finished training and is deployed, let’s say a severe climactic event disrupts the usual weather dynamics. Since the AI system making the predictions was trained on data that didn’t include this disruption, its predictions will become increasingly inaccurate.

The way to solve this issue is training the AI “online”, meaning it is regularly shown the latest temperature data while being used to predict temperatures.

This sounds like a great solution, but there are a few risks associated with online training. We can leave the AI system to train itself using the latest data, but it may get out of control.

Fundamentally, this can happen because of chaos theory, which, in simple terms, means most AI systems are sensitive to initial conditions. When we don’t know what data the system will come across, we can’t know how to tune the initial conditions to control potential instabilities in the future.

When the data isn’t right

Sometimes, the training data just isn’t fit for purpose. For example, it may not have the qualities the AI system needs to perform whatever task we are training it to do.

To use an extremely simplified example, imagine an AI tool for identifying “tall” and “short” people. In the training data, should a person who is 170cm be labelled tall or short? If tall, what will the system return when it comes across someone who is 169.5cm? (Perhaps the best solution would be to add a “medium” label.)

The above may seem trivial, but issues with data labelling or poor data sets can have problematic consequences if the AI system is involved in medical diagnosis, for example.

Fixing this problem is not easy, since identifying the relevant pieces of information requires a great deal of knowledge and experience. Bringing on board a subject matter expert in the data collection process can be a great solution, as it can guide the developers on what types of data to even include to begin with.

As (future) users of AI and technology, it is important for all of us to be aware of these issues to broaden our perspective on AI and its prediction outcomes concerning different aspects of our lives.

Niusha Shafiabady does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. AI is not a magic wand – it has built-in problems that are difficult to fix and can be dangerous – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/230878

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Vincent Ho, Associate Professor and clinical academic gastroenterologist, Western Sydney University

No, you’re not imagining it. People really are more likely to poo in the morning, shortly after breakfast. Researchers have actually studied this.

But why mornings? What if you tend to poo later in the day? And is it worth training yourself to be a morning pooper?

To understand what makes us poo when we do, we need to consider a range of factors including our body clock, gut muscles and what we have for breakfast.

Here’s what the science says.

So morning poos are real?

In a UK study from the early 1990s, researchers asked nearly 2,000 men and women in Bristol about their bowel habits.

The most common time to poo was in the early morning. The peak time was 7-8am for men and about an hour later for women. The researchers speculated that the earlier time for men was because they woke up earlier for work.

About a decade later, a Chinese study found a similar pattern. Some 77% of the almost 2,500 participants said they did a poo in the morning.

But why the morning?

There are a few reasons. The first involves our circadian rhythm – our 24-hour internal clock that helps regulate bodily processes, such as digestion.

For healthy people, our internal clock means the muscular contractions in our colon follow a distinct rhythm.

There’s minimal activity in the night. The deeper and more restful our sleep, the fewer of these muscle contractions we have. It’s one reason why we don’t tend to poo in our sleep.

But there’s increasing activity during the day. Contractions in our colon are most active in the morning after waking up and after any meal.

One particular type of colon contraction partly controlled by our internal clock are known as “mass movements”. These are powerful contractions that push poo down to the rectum to prepare for the poo to be expelled from the body, but don’t always result in a bowel movement. In healthy people, these contractions occur a few times a day. They are more frequent in the morning than in the evening, and after meals.

Breakfast is also a trigger for us to poo. When we eat and drink our stomach stretches, which triggers the “gastrocolic reflex”. This reflex stimulates the colon to forcefully contract and can lead you to push existing poo in the colon out of the body. We know the gastrocolic reflex is strongest in the morning. So that explains why breakfast can be such a powerful trigger for a bowel motion.

Then there’s our morning coffee. This is a very powerful stimulant of contractions in the sigmoid colon (the last part of the colon before the rectum) and of the rectum itself. This leads to a bowel motion.

How important are morning poos?

Large international surveys show the vast majority of people will poo between three times a day and three times a week.

This still leaves a lot of people who don’t have regular bowel habits, are regular but poo at different frequencies, or who don’t always poo in the morning.

So if you’re healthy, it’s much more important that your bowel habits are comfortable and regular for you. Bowel motions do not have to occur once a day in the morning.

Morning poos are also not a good thing for everyone. Some people with irritable bowel syndrome feel the urgent need to poo in the morning – often several times after getting up, during and after breakfast. This can be quite distressing. It appears this early-morning rush to poo is due to overstimulation of colon contractions in the morning.

Can you train yourself to be regular?

Yes, for example, to help treat constipation using the gastrocolic reflex. Children and elderly people with constipation can use the toilet immediately after eating breakfast to relieve symptoms. And for adults with constipation, drinking coffee regularly can help stimulate the gut, particularly in the morning.

A disturbed circadian rhythm can also lead to irregular bowel motions and people more likely to poo in the evenings. So better sleep habits can not only help people get a better night’s sleep, it can help them get into a more regular bowel routine.

Regular physical activity and avoiding sitting down a lot are also important in stimulating bowel movements, particularly in people with constipation.

We know stress can contribute to irregular bowel habits. So minimising stress and focusing on relaxation can help bowel habits become more regular.

Fibre from fruits and vegetables also helps make bowel motions more regular.

Finally, ensuring adequate hydration helps minimise the chance of developing constipation, and helps make bowel motions more regular.

Monitoring your bowel habits

Most of us consider pooing in the morning to be regular. But there’s a wide variation in normal so don’t be concerned if your poos don’t follow this pattern. It’s more important your poos are comfortable and regular for you.

If there’s a major change in the regularity of your bowel habits that’s concerning you, see your GP. The reason might be as simple as a change in diet or starting a new medication.

But sometimes this can signify an important change in the health of your gut. So your GP may need to arrange further investigations, which could include blood tests or imaging.

Vincent Ho does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Why do I poo in the morning? A gut expert explains – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/229624

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Caroline Fisher, Associate Professor of Communication, University of Canberra

There has been a lot of hype about the emergence of generative AI products such as ChatGPT. Organisations, including news outlets, are rapidly adopting artificial intelligence technologies to boost productivity and creativity. Some news organisations are also cutting deals with AI companies to pay them for scraping their content.

But what does the public think about the increasing role of AI in the production of news?

This year’s Digital News Report: Australia 2024 finds Australians prefer news that is made by humans, rather than AI, but the degree of discomfort depends on the topic.

The online survey of 2,003 adult Australians finds they are much more comfortable with sport (31%) and entertainment (26%) news being produced mainly by AI than with politics (19%) and crime (21%) news being produced the same way (see the chart below).

This suggests those who favour so-called “hard” news subjects are more sceptical about the use of AI in news and the impact it might have on the quality of news about important civic and social issues. Sports, lifestyle and culture news lovers are more relaxed about it, reflecting the different role these news genres play in people’s lives.

But, overall, 59% say they feel uneasy about news produced by AI with human oversight. This is compared to 28% who say they uncomfortable about news that is mainly produced by human journalists with AI assistance.

A lack of understanding about AI technology is a likely factor in people’s discomfort with it. Only 44% say they know a moderate or large amount about AI. Those who know a fair bit (26%) are more likely to say they’re comfortable with news produced mostly by AI, compared to those who only know a small amount (11%) or nothing at all (7%).

But awareness is also related to news consumption. Compared to heavy news users (51%), Australians who rarely or never access news are the least likely to be aware of AI technology (17%) and to be comfortable with news stories mostly produced by it (6%).

These findings suggest attitudes towards AI in news may change over time as audiences become more familiar with it. They also highlight the important role news organisations can play in helping to explain how they use the technology.

People who trust news are more comfortable with AI

Transparency appears to be key. Our study found a link between people’s comfort with the use of AI in news, their awareness of AI, and their trust in news. The more awareness they have about AI and the more they trust news, the more comfortable they are likely to be with its use in producing news.

One-quarter of people who trust the news they choose to consume say they are comfortable with it being produced mostly by AI, with human assistance. Conversely, those who distrust their news are the most likely to say they are somewhat or very uncomfortable with this scenario (70%).

For people who don’t trust the news, the increasing use of AI may add another layer of uncertainty in an online environment in which it is already difficult to identify reliable information.

Given this strong link to trust in news, it is important that news organisations are open with their audience about how and why AI is being used to create news. While adopting AI technologies might reduce costs for news outlets, it would be counterproductive to do it at the price of trust in their news.

With the growth of AI news summaries, news brands need to do all they can to showcase their original and credible content to hold on to their paying audiences.

In its tenth edition, the Digital News Report: Australia 2024 also finds:

• heavy news consumption has risen to 51% compared to 48% in 2023, particularly among Gen Z women
• 41% say they have news fatigue (up from 28% in 2019)
• trust in news has remained steady, but distrust in news has risen consistently over the past ten years
• interest in news about the economy and mental health has risen since 2022
• social media are the main source of news for 60% of Gen Z (compared to 47% in 2023)
• the number of X (Twitter) users paying attention to mainstream news on X dropped to 49% (down 13 percentage points), while those paying attention to posts from ordinary people increased (47%, up 10 percentage points).

Digital News Report: Australia is produced by the News & Media Research Centre (N&MRC) at the University of Canberra and is part of a global annual survey of digital news consumption in 47 countries, commissioned by the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism at the University of Oxford. The survey was conducted by YouGov at the end of January/beginning of February 2024. The data are weighted for age, gender and region. Education and political quotas were applied. In Australia, this is the tenth annual survey of its kind produced by the N&MRC.

Caroline Fisher receives funding from the Australian Research Council.

Kieran McGuinness has received funding from Google News Initiative and the Australian Communications and Media Authority.

Sora Park receives funding from the Australian Research Council and Creative Australia.

– ref. Australians say AI shouldn’t produce political news, but it’s OK for sport: new research – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231369

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Adrian Beaumont, Election Analyst (Psephologist) at The Conversation; and Honorary Associate, School of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of Melbourne

A national Resolve poll for Nine newspapers, conducted June 11–15 from a sample of 1,607, gave the Coalition 36% of the primary vote (steady since the May post-budget Resolve poll), Labor 28% (down one), the Greens 14% (up two), One Nation 6% (down one), the UAP 1% (down one), independents 11% (down one) and others 4% (up two).

Resolve doesn’t usually give a two party estimate, but applying 2022 preference flows to this poll would give Labor about a 51–49 lead, unchanged since May. This is where the good news from this poll ends for Labor.

Peter Dutton has taken a 36–35 lead as preferred PM over Anthony Albanese, a reversal of a 40–32 lead for Albanese in May. The preferred PM measure usually skews to incumbents relative to voting intentions. This is the first time any national poll has given Dutton a preferred PM lead.

Albanese’s ratings were 50% poor and 36% good, for a net approval of -14, down three points since May. Dutton’s net approval surged seven points to +2. This is Dutton’s second positive net approval from any national poll, after an April Essential poll gave him a +3 net approval.

On economic management, the Liberals extended their lead over Labor to 40–24 from 38–29 in May. The Liberal lead on keeping the cost of living low increased slightly to 32–25 from 32–26.

When asked to rank the most important issue, 54% selected keeping the cost of living low, while just 7% selected the environment and climate change. I believe this explains why Dutton isn’t suffering a backlash from his climate stance.

Last week’s Newspoll had a 50–50 tie between Labor and the Coalition, so this Resolve poll is more evidence that Dutton is advancing. The Morgan poll below differs, but it is a volatile poll.

Freshwater poll steady at a 50–50 tie

A national Freshwater poll for The Australian Financial Review, conducted June 14–16 from a sample of 1,060, had a 50–50 tie, unchanged from the May post-budget Freshwater poll. Primary votes were 40% Coalition (steady), 32% Labor (steady), 13% Greens (down one) and 15% for all Others (up one). Freshwater is usually better for the Coalition than other polls.

Albanese’s lead as preferred PM over Dutton was reduced to 43–41 from 46–37 in May. Albanese’s net approval fell four points to -12, with 46% disapproving and 34% approving. Dutton’s net approval was up four points to -5.

Labor’s position against the Coalition on a range of issues was reduced by one to eight points since May, including a six-point widening in the Coalition’s lead on the crucial issue of cost of living to 36–27.

Morgan poll Labor’s best for three months

In the national Morgan poll that was conducted June 3–9 from a sample of 1,687, Labor led by 53.5–46.5, a 1.5-point gain for Labor since the May 27 to June 2 poll. This was Labor’s best position in this series for three months. However, the Coalition had its best result this term in the May 20–26 Morgan poll, when they led by 51.5–48.5. This pollster is volatile.

Primary votes in the latest poll were 35% Coalition (down one), 30.5% Labor (down 0.5), 15.5% Greens (up 1.5), 5.5% One Nation (up one), 9.5% independents (up 0.5) and 4% others (down 1.5).

North Sydney abolished in NSW federal draft redistribution

The New South Wales federal draft redistribution was released last Friday. North Sydney, currently held by teal independent Kylea Tink, was abolished. The Poll Bludger has calculated the new margins for all NSW seats.

Bennelong is the only change in notional party alignment, with a 1.1% swing to the Liberals barely putting them ahead of Labor. In Bradfield, the Liberal margin over a teal independent was reduced to 52.5–47.5, a 1.8% swing to a teal. The Liberal-held Hughes swung 3.7% to Labor, with the Liberals still ahead by 53.3–46.7.

I covered the Victorian and Western Australian draft federal redistributions on May 31. It’s expected to be a few months before the redistributions are finalised. Until finalisation, the new boundaries can’t be used at an election.

Analyst Kevin Bonham, using the draft redistributions, said his seat model would give Labor 79 of the now 150 House of Representatives seats if there was no two-party swing from the 2022 election, which Labor won by 52.1–47.9. This would be a one-seat gain for Labor from the current House.

Assuming no changes to the crossbench, Labor would have an even chance of retaining their majority with a 51.1–48.9 national two-party win, about where polls are now. The Coalition would need a 51.3–48.7 two-party split in its favour to win more seats than Labor, and a 53.4–46.6 split to win a majority.

NSW Redbridge poll: Labor barely ahead

A New South Wales state Redbridge poll, conducted in two waves in February and May from a sample of 1,376, gave Labor just a 50.5–49.5 lead, a four-point gain for the Coalition since the March 2023 election. Primary votes were 40% Coalition, 35% Labor, 11% Greens and 14% for all Others. This poll was reported in The Daily Telegraph on June 10.

Despite the poor voting intentions result for Labor, the “Labor government led by Chris Minns” had a +20 net approval, with 40% rating it good and 20% poor. The Coalition opposition led by Mark Speakman had a -2 net approval (21% poor, 19% good).

In other NSW news, there will be a byelection this Saturday in Northern Tablelands, which the Nationals won by 83.8–16.2 over Labor at the 2023 election. The Poll Bludger reported last Thursday that Labor is not contesting the byelection.

Right advances in Europe as early French election called

I covered the June 6–9 European parliament election for The Poll Bludger. Right-wing parties made gains mainly at the expense of the Greens and the liberals.

After dismal European election results for his party, French President Emmanuel Macron called new parliamentary elections, two years into a five-year term. The first round of these elections will be held on June 30, with the runoffs on July 7.

Adrian Beaumont does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Dutton snatches preferred PM lead in Resolve poll as draft redistributions finished – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232378

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Jenny Graves, Distinguished Professor of Genetics and Vice Chancellor’s Fellow, La Trobe University

Neanderthals, the closest cousins of modern humans, lived in parts of Europe and Asia until their extinction some 30,000 years ago.

Genetic studies are revealing ever more about the links between modern humans and these long-gone relatives – most recently that a rush of interbreeding between our species occurred in a relatively short burst of time around 47,000 years ago. But one mystery still remains.

The Homo sapiens genome today contains a little bit of Neanderthal DNA. These genetic traces come from almost every part of the Neanderthal genome – except the Y sex chromosome, which is responsible for making males.

So what happened to the Neanderthal Y chromosome? It could have been lost by accident, or because of mating patterns or inferior function. However, the answer may lie in a century-old theory about the health of interspecies hybrids.

Neanderthal sex, genes and chromosomes

Neanderthals and modern humans went their separate ways somewhere between 550,000 and 765,000 years ago in Africa, when Neanderthals wandered off into Europe but our ancestors stayed put. They would not meet again until H. sapiens migrated into Europe and Asia between 40,000 and 50,000 years ago.

Scientists have recovered copies of the full male and female Neanderthal genomes, thanks to DNA from well-preserved bones and teeth of Neanderthal individuals in Europe and Asia. Unsurprisingly, the Neanderthal genome was very similar to ours, containing about 20,000 genes bundled into 23 chromosomes.

Like us, they had two copies of 22 of those chromosomes (one from each parent), and also a pair of sex chromosomes. Females had two X chromosomes, while males had one X and one Y.

Y chromosomes are hard to sequence because they contain a lot of repetitive “junk” DNA, so the Neanderthal Y genome has only been partially sequenced. However, the large chunk that has been sequenced contains versions of several of the same genes that are in the modern human Y chromosome.

In modern humans, a Y chromosome gene called SRY kickstarts the process of an XY embryo developing into a male. The SRY gene plays this role in all apes, so we assume it did for Neanderthals as well – even though we haven’t found the Neanderthal SRY gene itself.

Interspecies mating left us with Neanderthal genes

There are lots of little giveaways that mark a DNA sequence as coming from a Neanderthal or a H. sapiens. So we can look for bits of Neanderthal DNA sequence in the genomes of modern humans.

The genomes of all human lineages originating in Europe contain about 2% Neanderthal DNA sequences. Lineages from Asia and India contain even more, while lineages restricted to Africa have none. Some ancient Homo sapiens genomes contained even more – 6% or so – so it looks like the Neanderthal genes are gradually fading out.

Most of this Neanderthal DNA arrived in a 7,000-year period about 47,000 years ago, after modern humans came out of Africa into Europe, and before Neanderthals became extinct about 30,000 years ago. During this time there must have been many pairings between Neanderthals and humans.

At least half of the whole Neanderthal genome can be pieced together from fragments found in the genomes of different contemporary humans. We have our Neanderthal ancestors to thank for traits including red hair, arthritis and resistance to some diseases.

There is one glaring exception. No contemporary humans have been found to harbour any part of the Neanderthal Y chromosome.

What happened to the Neanderthal Y chromosome?

Was it just bad luck that the Neanderthal Y chromosome got lost? Was it not very good at its job of making males? Did Neanderthal women, but not men, indulge in interspecies mating? Or was there something toxic about the Neanderthal Y so it wouldn’t work with human genes?

A Y chromosome comes to the end of the line if its bearers have no sons, so it may simply have been lost over thousands of generations.

Or maybe the Neanderthal Y was never present in interspecies matings. Perhaps it was always modern human men who fell in love with (or traded, seized or raped) Neanderthal women? Sons born to these women would all have the H. sapiens form of the Y chromosome. However, it’s hard to reconcile this idea with the finding that there is no trace of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (which is limited to the female line) in modern humans.

Or perhaps the Neanderthal Y chromosome was just not as good at is job as its H. sapiens rival. Neanderthal populations were always small, so harmful mutations would have been more likely to accumulate.

We know that Y chromosomes with a particularly useful gene (for instance for more or better or faster sperm) rapidly replace other Y chromosomes in a population (called the hitchhiker effect).

We also know the Y chromosome is degrading overall in humans. It is even possible that SRY was lost from the Neanderthal Y, and that Neanderthals were in the disruptive process of evolving a new sex-determining gene, like some rodents have.

Was the Neanderthal Y chromosome toxic in hybrid boys?

Another possibility is that the Neanderthal Y chromosome won’t work with genes on other chromosomes from modern humans.

The missing Neanderthal Y may then be explained by “Haldane’s rule”. In the 1920s, British biologist J.B.S. Haldane noted that, in hybrids between species, if one sex is infertile, rare or unhealthy, it is always the sex with unlike sex chromosomes.

In mammals and other animals where females have XX chromosomes and males have XY, it is disproportionately male hybrids that are unfit or infertile. In birds, butterflies and other animals where males have ZZ chromosomes and females have ZW, it is the females.

Many crosses between different species of mice show this pattern, as do feline crosses. For example, in lion–tiger crosses (ligers and tigons), females are fertile but males are sterile.

We still lack a good explanation of Haldane’s rule. It is one of the enduring mysteries of classic genetics.

But it seems reasonable that the Y chromosome from one species has evolved to work with genes from the other chromosomes of its own species, and might not work with genes from a related species that contain even small changes.

We know that genes on the Y evolve much faster than genes on other chromosomes, and several have functions in making sperm, which may explain the infertility of male hybrids.

So this might explain why the Neanderthal Y got lost. It also raises the possibility that it was the fault of the Y chromosome, in imposing a reproductive barrier, that Neanderthals and humans became separate species in the first place.

Jenny Graves receives funding from the Australian Research Council

– ref. Modern human DNA contains bits from all over the Neanderthal genome – except the Y chromosome. What happened? – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/230984

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Alexandra James, Research Fellow, Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe University

Globally, more than 1 million curable sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are contracted every day in people aged 15–49. These include chlamydia, gonorrhoea and syphilis, among others.

In Australia, it’s estimated one in six people will receive an STI diagnosis in their lifetime – and the numbers are going up.

Very few common infections are stigmatised in the way STIs are, which makes them a particularly complex public health problem. Stigma perpetuates shame and anxiety among those diagnosed with an STI, which can lead people to delay testing or treatment.

Stigma can also make it difficult for people to tell their sexual partners about an STI diagnosis. A recent study found only around half of people disclosed or believed they should disclose an STI to a partner before having sex.

Why don’t people disclose an STI, and why do they?

The study, published this month in the Journal of Sex Research, was a systematic review, which means the researchers analysed the results of several studies. They looked at a total of 32 papers, mostly from the United States, with some from the United Kingdom and Australia. The study included a range of STIs, but excluded HIV.

When the researchers combined the results of these studies, they found only half or fewer people told a partner if they had an STI, or believed they should disclose this information to a partner, before having sex.

Common reasons for not telling a sexual partner about an STI included fear about how their partner would respond, and fear of rejection by their partner.

Some people didn’t think they needed to tell their partners, or saw it as a private matter – especially in casual sexual encounters. Younger people aged under 24 were less likely to tell sexual partners about an STI than older people.

Others believed there was no risk of transmission because they weren’t experiencing symptoms, or felt they had taken reasonable precautions to protect their sexual partner from STI transmission.

Condoms, when used correctly, are one of the most effective measures to protect against STIs, including chlamydia and gonorrhoea. But they won’t necessarily protect against STIs such as herpes, genital warts or syphilis, which can be spread by skin-to-skin contact. Dental dams can also be used during oral sex to help prevent STIs.

Not disclosing STIs to a sexual partner – particularly where effective protection was not used – can create problems. It can prevent someone who has potentially been exposed to an STI, or transmitted an STI, from being tested and treated. Then, the STI may be passed on to others.

The review also found some people hold off on sexual activity entirely after an STI diagnosis, or choose not to enter into a new sexual relationship, to avoid telling their partner about their STI status.

Of people who do tell their partner, they often reported this was because they value honesty in their relationship or view disclosing their STI as a moral obligation. Others disclose their STI status to protect their partner’s health and ensure they avoid long-term problems such as infertility that can arise from untreated infections. Some people tell their partner as a means to get emotional support.

Separate research has found that when people don’t tell their sexual partner about having an STI it can lead to increased anxiety and lower sexual satisfaction for the person with the STI.

Making STI disclosure easier

Talking about an STI diagnosis can be awkward and uncomfortable. But resources are available to help people talk to their partners about STIs or help them disclose an STI diagnosis.

These include confidential services that allow people to send anonymous text message or email notifications to sexual partners to tell them they have potentially been exposed to an STI.

These can be helpful for people who feel unable to talk with a previous sexual partner about their diagnosis, for example because a recent sexual partner was only a casual contact.

However, most people disclosing an STI prefer to speak directly with their sexual partners, particularly if they’re in an ongoing relationship.

Tackling stigma is key

For young people, school-based sex education will usually address STIs, but this needs to be done with care. Education that focuses only on the risks, dangers and “icky” parts of sex alienates young people and can enhance stigma related to STIs. This can make it less likely young people will seek STI screening or disclose an infection.

Contemporary approaches to comprehensive sex education emphasise the importance of supporting young people to navigate safe, respectful and pleasurable sexual relationships.

Education should include non-shaming information that demystifies STIs by reminding young people that they are common, testing is simple and most STIs are easily treatable.

But STIs are not just an issue for young people. We can’t assume someone automatically understands their sexual health once they become an adult.

Investment in campaigns that normalise STI screening, such as the fantastic Drama Downunder campaign, which uses prominent and humorous imagery to draw attention to STI prevention and testing for gay, bisexual, queer and trans men, can support people to seek sexual health services and have conversations about STIs.

Recently, the Australian government launched Beforeplay, a national advertising campaign to promote STI awareness and testing among adults. The success of this campaign will depend on its capacity to normalise open communication about sexual health and STI testing across a broad population.

The high level of stigma and shame associated with STIs makes them a unique and complex public health problem. Reducing STI rates will require tackling this stigma and shame.

Alexandra James receives funding from The Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care and Lifestyles Australia.

Jennifer Power receives funding from the Australian Department of Health and Aged Care and the Australian Research Council.

– ref. Why don’t people disclose STIs to a sexual partner? Stigma has a lot to do with it – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231914

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Tyler Rohr, Lecturer in Southern Ocean Biogeochemical Modelling, IMAS, University of Tasmania

As the world struggles to decarbonise, it’s becoming increasingly clear we’ll need to both rapidly reduce emissions and actively remove carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere. The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report considered 230 pathways to keep global warming below 1.5°C. All required CO₂ removal.

Some of the most promising CO₂ removal technologies receiving government funding in the United States, United Kingdom and Australia seek to increase the massive carbon storage potential of the ocean. These include fertilising tiny plants and tweaking ocean chemistry.

Ocean-based approaches are gaining popularity because they could potentially store carbon for a tenth of the cost of “direct air capture”, where CO₂ is sucked from the air with energy-intensive machinery.

But the marine carbon cycle is much harder to predict. Scientists must unravel the many complex natural processes that could alter the efficiency, efficacy and safety of ocean-based CO₂ removal before it can go ahead.

In our new research, we highlight a surprisingly important mechanism that had previously been overlooked. If CO₂ removal techniques change the appetite of tiny animals at the base of the food chain, that could dramatically change how much carbon is actually stored.

Plankton dominate the carbon pump

Tiny marine life forms called plankton play a huge role in ocean carbon cycling. These microscopic organisms drift on the ocean currents, moving captured carbon throughout the seas.

Like plants on land, phytoplankton use sunlight and CO₂ to grow through photosynthesis.

Zooplankton, on the other hand, are tiny animals that mostly eat phytoplankton. They come in many shapes and sizes. If you put them in a lineup, you might think they came from different planets.

Across all this diversity, zooplankton have very different appetites.
The hungrier they are, they faster they eat.

Uneaten phytoplankton – and zooplankton poo – can sink to great depths, keeping carbon locked away from the atmosphere for centuries. Some even sink to the seafloor, eventually transforming into fossil fuels.

This transfer of carbon from the atmosphere to the ocean is known as the “biological pump”. It keeps hundreds of billions of tonnes of carbon in the ocean and out of the atmosphere. That translates to about 400ppm CO₂ and 5°C of cooling!

Picky eaters

In our new research we wanted to better understand how zooplankton appetites influence the biological pump.

First we had to work out how zooplankton appetites differ across the ocean.

We used a computer model to simulate the seasonal cycle of phytoplankton population growth. This is based on the balance of reproduction and death. The model simulates reproduction really well.

Zooplankton appetites largely determine the death rate. But the model’s not so good at simulating death rates, because it doesn’t have enough information about zooplankton appetites.

So we tested dozens of different appetites and then checked our results against real-world data.

To get global observations of phytoplankton seasonal cycles without a fleet of ships, we used satellite data. This is possible even though phytoplankton are tiny, because their light-catching pigments are visible from space.

We ran the model in more than 30,000 locations and found zooplankton appetites vary enormously. That means all those different types of zooplankton are not spread evenly across the ocean. They appear to gather around their favourite types of prey.

In our latest research, we show how this diversity influences the biological pump.

We compared two models, one with just two types of zooplankton and another with an unlimited number of zooplankton – each with different appetites, all individually tuned to their unique environment.

We found including realistic zooplankton diversity reduced the strength of the biological pump by a billion tonnes of carbon every year. That’s bad for humanity, because most of the carbon that doesn’t go into the ocean ends up back in the atmosphere.

Not all of the carbon in the bodies of the phytoplankton would have sunk deep enough to be locked away from the atmosphere. But even if only a quarter did, once converted to CO₂ that could match annual emissions from the entire aviation industry.

The ocean as a sponge

Many ocean-based CO₂ removal technologies will alter the composition and abundance of phytoplankton.

Biological ocean-based CO₂ removal technologies such as “ocean iron fertilisation” seek to increase phytoplankton growth. It’s a bit like spreading fertiliser in your garden, but on a much bigger scale – with a fleet of ships seeding iron across the ocean.

The goal is to remove CO₂ from the atmosphere and pump it into the deep ocean. However, because some phytoplankton crave iron more than others, feeding them iron could change the composition of the population.

Alternatively, non-biological ocean-based CO₂ removal technologies such as “ocean alkalinity enhancement” shift the chemical balance, allowing more CO₂ to dissolve in the water before it reaches chemical equilibrium. However, the most accessible sources of alkalinity are minerals including nutrients that encourage the growth of certain phytoplankton over others.

If these changes to phytoplankton favour different types of zooplankton with different sized appetites, they are likely to change the strength of the biological pump. This could compromise – or complement – the efficiency of ocean-based CO₂ removal technologies.

Moving forward from a sea of uncertainty

Emerging private-sector CO₂ removal companies will require accreditation from reliable carbon offset registries. This means they must demonstrate their technology can:

1. remove carbon for hundreds of years (permanence)
2. avoid major environmental impacts (safety)
3. be amenable to accurate monitoring (verification).

Cast against a sea of uncertainty, the time is now for oceanographers to establish the necessary standards.

Our research shows CO₂ removal technologies that change phytoplankton communities could also drive changes in carbon storage, by modifying zooplankton appetites. We need to better understand this before we can accurately predict how well these technologies will work and how we must monitor them.

This will require tremendous effort to overcome the challenges of observing, modelling and predicting zooplankton dynamics. But the payoff is huge. A more reliable regulatory framework could pave the way for a trillion dollar, morally imperative, emerging CO₂ removal industry.

Tyler Rohr receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the ICONIC Impact Ocean Co-Lab, which is managed by the National Philanthropic Trust. Tyler Rohr has previously consulted for carbon offset registry Isometric.

Ali Mashayek advises Puro Earth, a crediting platform for carbon removal, on feasibility and environmental impacts of the carbon removal methodologies. He receives research funding from UK Research and Innovation and US Office of Naval Research.

Sophie Meyjes receives funding from the Natural Environment Research Council through the C-CLEAR Doctoral Training Partnership.

– ref. Marine CO₂ removal technologies could depend on the appetite of the ocean’s tiniest animals – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/227156

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Samantha Vlcek, Lecturer in inclusive education, RMIT University

We know children often miss more school days in the winter months, as sickness sets in.

But at this time of year, parents and teachers can also notice children disengaging from preferred activities and finding it more difficult to get through the day.

What are the signs a child may be burned out? And how can you help?

The winter months are tough

Burnout can happen at any time, but children are more likely to experience seasonal fatigue during winter, making burnout more likely.

Cold, wintry weather and shorter hours of sunlight have impacts on children, just like the rest of us.

At school, there is an increased likelihood of rainy day programs where children stay inside for most of the day. These changes limit opportunities for children to exert energy through a game of footy or racing friends onto the monkey bars.

Poor weather conditions also reduce opportunities to head to a playground after school or shoot some hoops in the driveway.

Classrooms are a breeding ground for illness and as children get more rundown, they are more likely to get sick.

Beyond the downsides of being unwell, when children are absent they are isolated from their peers. Children at school may also feel lonely when their friends are away.

It’s now also many months since the long summer break. So it is not surprising your child might might be running out of steam.

What is burnout?

Burnout is more than just feeling tired or wanting a break from regular activities. Burnout refers to a state of mental, physical and emotional exhaustion.

We know it can impact children as well as adults.

In children, we see signs of burnout in the way they approach previously enjoyed activities and relationships.

In the short term we see more school refusal, sleeping a lot more or finding it difficult to get to sleep, increases in appetite or eating a lot less, coming home excessively tired, being less interested in talking about their day, or having more arguments with friends.

We also see children try to avoid attending extracurricular activities or family events they typically enjoy.

There are long-term impacts

But the long-term impacts of unsupported burnout are even more damaging.

Research shows that prolonged feelings of stress and exhaustion in children can lead to disengagement from learning activities, and school avoidance.

When fatigue and anxiousness last for more than a few days, we can also see children not want to socialise with peers, which in turn can lead to social problems and further isolation.

Without proactive supports, research shows being burned out can lead to ongoing reductions in physical fitness, attention span and working memory (where we hold short-term information).

What can parents do?

Parents should be on high alert for signs of burnout at this stage of the term. There are lots of ways you could support your child, including:

• give your child a wellbeing break away from school for a day or two to reset and recharge

• take a short pause on extracurricular activities and reevaluate the necessity of other regular commitments. Is your child doing too much?

• organise some special family time, such as watching a show together or playing a board game (homework tasks can wait)

• speak to your child about how it is OK to reach out to you or other trusted adults if they are finding things more difficult than usual.

If your child isn’t bouncing back to their usual self within a few days, talk to your child’s teacher and see what they are noticing. Teachers will have insights into any changes in the classroom routine that might be influencing your child’s mood or behaviour.

If you remain concerned, make an appointment with their GP or paediatrician to discuss what you are noticing and investigate ways to help.

What can teachers do?

Teachers can also help their students through the gloomy winter months. No doubt, they too will need to recharge their own energy levels, almost halfway into the year.

Teachers could focus more on wellbeing than education concepts. This could include “gentle afternoons” with mindfulness activities, yoga sessions or a focus on physical and cognitive games.

There is no perfect recipe for how long these strategies are needed – parents and teachers know their children best, and can evaluate the situation and find the most appropriate path forward.

The goal is to reduce the likelihood of children being burned out, and ensure they can be in the best frame of mind to enjoy school, their lessons and their friends.

Samantha Vlcek does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Is your child experiencing ‘winter burnout’? Here’s what to look out for – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231830

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of Canberra

Supporters of Yang Hengjun, the Australian citizen incarcerated in China, have urged Prime Minister Anthony Albanese to ask Chinese Premier Li Qiang to have the ailing author released “on medical parole” or otherwise transferred to Australia.

Ahead of the Albanese-Li meeting Monday in Canberra, Yang’s supporters said in a statement that his “medical conditions remain serious and unaddressed”.

Yang’s situation will be one of the contentious issues raised during a discussion between the leaders that is set to emphasise the positives in the relationship.

Li was feted on Sunday with a lunch at a winery near Adelaide attended by Foreign Minister Penny Wong, Trade Minister Don Farrell, and Agriculture Minister Murray Watt.

He also visited the Adelaide zoo, announcing the two Chinese pandas there, which have long been a major tourist attraction but are due to go home, will be replaced by another pair.

South Australia Premier Peter Malinauskas said the announcement was “a powerful gesture of the stabilisation of the Australia-China relationship”.

Read more:
China’s premier is about to visit Australia for the first time in 7 years – what can we expect?

On his arrival in Australia on Saturday, Li said in a statement released by the Chinese embassy that the China-Australia bilateral relationship was “back on track after a period of twists and turns”.

Albanese has flagged that in Monday’s talks he will raise issues causing difficulties between the two countries. These include recent incidents in which Australia’s military assets and personnel have been targeted with Chinese sonar and flares while they operated in international waters.

The Australian government is hoping the visit leads to the early lifting of restrictions on the export of Australian lobsters to China, although Farrell indicated he didn’t expect an immediate announcement. This is the last remaining Australian product to face barriers arising from Chinese retaliation against the former Coalition government.

Farrell told Sky News that restrictions had been lifted on almost $20 billion worth of trade since the Albanese government came to office.

In Canberra on Monday, Li will attend a state lunch and will also meet Opposition Leader Peter Dutton.

After Canberra he will go to Western Australia, where he will visit a lithium processing plant.

At Monday’s lunch, Albanese will underline the importance of “ongoing dialogue” between the countries.

“Whatever the issue, it is always better if we deal direct with each other. And consistent, steady engagement helps build and maintain stability across our region,” the prime minister will say in remarks released ahead of delivery.

In their relations, Australia and China “must always be ready to engage with each other as mature nations.

“There is much that remains to be done, but it is clear that our nations are making progress in stabilising and rebuilding that crucial dialogue.”

While highlighting their common interests, Albanese will say, “We won’t always agree – and the points on which we disagree won’t simply disappear if we leave them in silence”.

“We share a responsibility to build and strengthen the foundation for talking through our differences and for building collaboration in areas where we do find mutual interest.

“Creating channels of dialogue and building understanding is how we make it possible for benefits to flow. Across business, trade and education. Climate and health. Culture and the arts.”

In their statement, Yang’s supporters said they had “no grounds for confidence that he is receiving adequate medical treatment”.

Earlier, Wong declined to discuss Yang’s medical condition, citing “privacy”.

Asked on the ABC whether she was aware he had been given appropriate medical treatment, wong said, “I’m obviously constrained for privacy reasons about what I’m going to say on a television interview.

“We will continue to advocate for Dr Yang wherever we are able, and we will continue to advocate, including for appropriate medical treatment.”

Yang’s supporters say he has waived privacy considerations.

Yang, who was born in China, is accused of spying, which he strongly denies. Earlier this year he was given the death penalty, although this would be commuted to life imprisonment after two years of good behaviour.

The Australian government has made repeated representations on his behalf, and said it was appalled at the February decision.

The statement from supporters said: “Dr Yang is innocent and his espionage conviction is spurious.

“Yang is an Australian political prisoner who has been sentenced to death because of his writings in support of individual freedoms, constitutional democracy and rule-of-law.

“Clearly, it is not possible to achieve a stable, respectful bilateral relationship with China while their officials are threatening to execute an Australian political prisoner, without any semblance of due legal process.”

There will be no opportunity for Australian journalists to ask Li questions during his visit.

Michelle Grattan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Anthony Albanese to raise differences while stressing positives in talks with Chinese premier – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232569

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Jaya Dantas, Deputy Chair, Academic Board; Dean International, Faculty of Health Sciences, and Professor of International Health, Curtin University

Earlier this week, Moderna announced positive results for its phase 3 clinical trial of a combined vaccine against COVID and influenza.

So what exactly did the trial find? And what sort of impact would a two-in-one COVID and flu vaccine have on public health? Let’s take a look.

Combination vaccines are already used for other diseases

Combination vaccines have been successfully used for several decades in Australia and around the world.

For example, the DTP vaccine, a shot that combines protection against diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (whooping cough), was first administered in 1948.

The DTP vaccine has since been further combined to offer protection against other diseases. A hexavalent vaccine, which protects against six diseases – diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio, hepatitis B and Haemophilus influenzae type b (an infection that can cause brain swelling) – is today part of routine childhood immunisation programs in Australia and elsewhere.

Another important combination vaccine is the MMR vaccine, given to children to protect against measles, mumps and rubella.

So what did the trial find?

Moderna’s phase 3 trial included roughly 8,000 participants across two age groups. Half were adults aged 50 to 64. The other half were aged 65 and up.

In both age groups, participants were randomised to either receive the combined vaccine (called mRNA-1083) or a control. The control groups received a COVID vaccine and a suitable flu vaccine delivered separately.

The control group in the 50-to-64 age category were given the Fluarix flu vaccine, as well as Moderna’s mRNA COVID vaccine, Spikevax. The over-65 control group received Spikevax alongside Fluzone HD, an enhanced flu vaccine designed specifically for older adults.

The study evaluated safety, including any reactions after vaccination, and the protective immune response the vaccines produced.

Moderna reported the combined vaccine elicited a higher immune response in both age groups against COVID and three influenza strains, compared to the co-administered shots.

From a safety perspective, the combined vaccine was well tolerated. Adverse reactions were similar across the experimental and control groups. The most common side effects included muscle aches, fatigue and pain at the injection site.

While the trial results are promising, they are yet to be published in a peer-reviewed journal, which means independent experts haven’t yet verified them. And further research may be required to test how the combined vaccine works in younger age groups.

What are the advantages of combined vaccines?

We cannot overstate the importance of vaccines. Each year they prevent up to 5 million deaths around the world from a range of life-threatening infections.

At the same time, we can always do more to boost vaccination uptake, especially in areas with fewer resources and among vulnerable populations.

Combination vaccines have a variety of advantages. For example, the need for fewer injections reduces costs for health systems, decreases storage requirements and reduces the burden on parents. All of these things can be especially valuable in low-income countries.

Notably, research shows combination vaccines make it more likely people will take up routine vaccinations.

Two important diseases

Every year, particularly during the winter months, millions of people contract respiratory infections. Indeed, parts of Australia are reported to be facing rapid increases in flu cases at the moment.

According to the World Health Organization, globally, roughly 3 million to 5 million people experience severe influenza annually, and around 650,000 people will die from the disease.

COVID has resulted in more than 7 million deaths around the world to date.

As the COVID pandemic has continued, we’ve seen pandemic fatigue setting in, as some people appear to have become complacent about their COVID shots. A 2023 study in Australia found 30% of the surveyed population were hesitant about and 9% were resistant to taking COVID boosters.

Uptake of the flu vaccine, which many people are in the habit of getting annually, may be higher. That said, in Australia the current flu vaccine rates for 2024 are still fairly low: 53% for adults over 65 years, 26% for those aged 50 to 65, and lower for younger age groups.

A two-in-one COVID and flu vaccine could be an important public health tool to increase vaccine coverage against these two important diseases. Beyond protecting individuals’ health, this would have flow-on benefits for the economy and our health system.

Moderna said it will present its trial data at an upcoming medical conference and submit it for publication. The company has also said it will soon apply for regulatory approval, with the possibility of supplying the combined vaccine in 2025.

At the same time, Pfizer and BioNTech also have late-stage trials in progress for a combined COVID and flu vaccine. We will await further developments with interest.

Professor Jaya Dantas is Dean International and Dean, Diversity, Equity, Inclusion and Belonging in the Faculty of Health Sciences at Curtin University and Professor of International Health at Curtin School of Population Health. She is working on projects funded by Healthway, Lotterywest and DISER. She has lived experience of infectious diseases in India and Africa.

– ref. Results are looking promising for a combined COVID and flu vaccine. Here’s how it could benefit public health – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232278

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Irina Ponomareva, Adjunct Research Fellow in Griffith Center for Social and Cultural Research (GCSCR), Griffith University

Investigation of a sacred area at Avon Downs in Jangga Country, Central Queensland, has uncovered evidence of stone tool production in a place that was traditionally restricted to women.

We detail our findings in newly published research in collaboration with archaeological expert Liz Hatte and Jangga Elders Colin McLennan and Marie Wallace.

Our excavation of the layered sediments at Avon Downs reveals a long history of raw stone extraction and tool making. In the short period of our study, we recorded about 1,500 stone artefacts on the surface and under the ground.

And this is just the tip of the iceberg, as we expect more detailed evidence of tool production to be found beneath the site’s surface and in neighbouring areas.

By dating these artefacts, we have traced a 7,000-year history of continuous stone tool production by Aboriginal women – including objects traditionally associated with men. We are also the first team to ever date a sacred Aboriginal women’s area.

Hundreds of generations of tool making

Using a technique called optically stimulated luminescence, we measured the age of individual sand grains within the artefact-rich layers of the hill slope. We were then able to date the artefacts by association.

The uncovered artefacts varied in age from about 430 years ago (before the first Europeans arrived) to some 7,000 years ago. This implies the site was used for stone tool production and possibly as a sacred women’s area for hundreds of generations.

Jangga Elders Colin McLennan and Marie Wallace have a shared memory extending as far back as at least six generations. They understand the site has always been forbidden to men, as it continues to be today.

While some of the relevant sacred knowledge remains restricted, we can report Jangga women came to Gaio Nanhi Bura (women’s sacred place) to give birth and perform associated ceremonies until the turn of the 20th century.

Some of the stone tools were used in sacred ways, such as for cutting the umbilical cord of newborn babies, says Wallace. Drill points, ochre and a grinding stone and muller are further evidence of everyday tool making and decoration.

The rare discovery of an unfinished axe, ready to be ground and polished, is also somewhat surprising, as axe making is typically associated with male crafters.

The site remains a direct link between modern Jangga women and their ancestors. Today’s Jangga women who have visited and worked on the site describe feeling a strong sense of peace and belonging, as well as the presence of their ancestors.

Railway project disruptions

Like many other Aboriginal sites in Australia, the Avon Downs Women’s Area has faced threats. It sits in the way of the North Galilee Basin Rail Project, which stretches from the Carmichael coal mine to the port at Abbot Point.

Planning for this project started in 2012, prompting cultural heritage surveys, assessments and negotiations with Traditional Owners.

In 2014, the sacred area at Avon Downs was revealed following a survey and consultations with Jangga Elders. The artefacts themselves, which had been partially hidden by thick spinifex grass, were discovered in 2020 during cultural heritage monitoring before the clearance of native forest.

After extended negotiations with the Carmichael project representatives, and some news coverage of the archaeological discoveries, a solution was found.

For the benefit of future study, the site was conserved as a protected portion inside the rail corridor – but not without any loss. This portion is a fragmented piece of a much larger complex of camp sites and knapping floors (areas where stone tools were shaped) – but there is no longer free access between these individual sites.

So while the railway project will not run directly through, it has still compromised the integrity of the area.

Protecting sacred area

Sacred Aborignal women’s sites are often difficult to protect in their entirety. It can be challenging to demonstrate their cultural value when the associated knowledge is restricted to a few members of the Aboriginal community.

The protection of these sites has been hampered by past misunderstandings of Aboriginal cultures, as well as racism, sexism and misogyny.

Throughout Australia, there are only a handful of examples where Aboriginal women have chosen to disclose secret information to protect sacred women’s sites for future generations.

When explaining the importance of protecting and recording Jangga traditional knowledge and culture, Wallace emphasised the Jangga people’s belief that such sacred places can even be dangerous:

You are not supposed to touch anything, or take away something. They can make you sick.

Jangga people maintain the sanctity of these areas in their collective memory, providing a seamless connection between living memory and the dated sequence of sediments and artefacts.

And while their current cultural traditions in the Avon Downs Women’s Area can be traced back to several hundred years, we may be able to extend this to several thousand as more archaeological evidence becomes available.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. We dated a sacred Aboriginal women’s site used for birthing ceremonies and discovered 7,000 years of tool making – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231717

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Darius von Guttner Sporzynski, Historian, Australian Catholic University

Last night, millions of people will have tuned into Netflix and other streaming services to binge their favourite shows, including the (much anticipated) second part of Bridgerton season three.

Streaming services such as Netflix, Disney+, Stan and Prime Video have habituated us to the “all at once” series drop. And even as some services try to find ways to break the binge model, many commentators have bid farewell to the “the good old days” of appointment viewing.

Meanwhile, experts have highlighted the health concerns associated with “problematic bingeing”, including increased anxiety and depression.

But there’s an important detail missing in these conversations. And that is the fact that bingeing – the act of unrestrained and excessive indulgence – is nothing new. In fact, it exemplifies an age-old human desire to be completely immersed in story.

Far from being a new behaviour spawned by the digital age, bingeing is rooted in human history.

An ancient practice

Much like you might binge Baby Reindeer, Eric or The Walking Dead today, humans have always sought absorbing narrative experiences.

Before writing emerged, ancient oral storytelling captivated people across cultures, providing entertainment, knowledge transmission and cultural education.

Research published last year suggests Palawa Aboriginal stories from Tasmania can be traced back to events that happened 12,000 years ago, which means they may be among the oldest recorded oral stories in the world. Stories that survive hundreds of generations require constant telling and retelling.

This engagement with stories continued with the advent of written text. For millennia, large text collections has allowed immersive consumption, with examples ranging from the Panchatantra – a compilation of Indian fables dated to around 200BC – to volumes of William Shakespeare’s plays from the 1600s.

Historically, libraries, galleries and museums played a significant role in providing access to large collections of works, including books, as well as artworks and artefacts.

Eventually, the invention of the printing press revolutionised access to texts. Evidence suggests that by the 18th century, avid readers in England (that is, the upper class who could afford books) would devour novels in public or by candlelight – unable to stop until the story ended.

Literature researcher Ana Vogrinčič suggests a sort of “moral panic” emerged as the women of the time got a taste for reading:

reading in bed by the candlelight was believed to risk conflagration, while women laughing out loud over a certain scene or wobbling in emotions over another, in indecent body postures, regularly incited an offensive language, resulting in a heavily stigmatised and stereotyped image of a female novel-reader – a precursor of a modern coach potato. The reading sofa and the television couch certainly represent what 18th-century novel-reading and modern-day television-viewing seem to have in common.

Serialised literature became popular in the 19th century, with more and more writers releasing their work in instalments.

Eventually, the rise of cinema and television provided a new form of immersive storytelling. Access to home videos meant back-to-back viewing, while film screenings and double features mirrored older communal entertainment forms such as public readings and theatre attendances.

Hooked on a feeling

While bingeing has been around for as long as anyone can remember, the internet and streaming have both significantly increased our capacity for it. Perhaps this is why bingeing is framed as a modern phenomenon.

Creators must now design shows with the binge-watching model in mind, using cliffhangers, escapism and continuous arcs to encourage prolonged viewing. All of these factors (and more) combine to make a “bingeable” show.

As to why we love bingeing, this comes down to a complex interplay of emotions and brain chemistry.

Engaging with captivating stories triggers the release of dopamine, the neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, to create an addictive experience. At the same time, the human brain craves “closure”, which is something a compelling onscreen narrative will provide.

Shifting values

Bingeing today is often accompanied by feelings of guilt and unproductiveness. This seems to reflect, more than anything else, a shift in societal values regarding leisure time.

At some points in the past, prolonged engagement with stories would have been seen by certain groups as a valuable cultural activity – one that contributes to personal enrichment and social interaction.

For instance, the European Enlightenment movement of the 17th and 18th centuries encouraged people to develop a critical view of the world through as much self-education as possible. This approach to learning was thought to foster intellectual freedom and happiness, and often involved extensive engagement with written works.

Across time and cultures, humans have sought to escape reality and engage emotionally with stories. From ancient oral traditions, to modern streaming, our desire for continuous narrative consumption has remained constant.

Perhaps by recognising this historical precedent, we can come to appreciate our love of bingeing – and not feel so bad about it after all.

Darius von Guttner Sporzynski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

– ref. Don’t feel bad about bingeing TV. Humans have binged stories for thousands of years – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231713

Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Paul Williams, Associate Professor, Griffith University, Griffith University

Many a government has spent generously to woo voters in election years. Some might even say recklessly.

But, even by that standard, the cash splashed this week by the Queensland Labor government under Premier Steven Miles is eye-watering – not just in dollar terms but also in the choices Treasurer Cameron Dick has made in the run-up to an October election few believe Labor can win.

In offering feel-good “sugar hits” that make the recent federal budget seem like diet cordial, Dick, in his fifth budget, has targeted the four biggest policy issues for voters in Queensland (and every other state and territory): cost of living, youth crime, housing and health.

That’s why he allocated an extra $1.28 billion for more police and to support victims of crime. It’s also why health had an almost unprecedented 10.6% funding increase – hospital ramping is a particularly sore point. Another A$3.1 billion was invested in the “Homes for Queenslanders” program, which offers rental support, while significantly raising the home value threshold before stamp duties are charged.

There’s also a $107 billion “Big Build” infrastructure program over four years to accommodate an exploding population, an issue both widely lamented and acutely felt in Brisbane.

But it’s the government’s cost-of-living relief package that has attracted the most attention and, arguably, the most scorn. By offering a weary electorate $1,000 cash-back on power bills (in addition to the federal government’s recently announced $300), 50 cent fares on all public transport, a 20% reduction in vehicle registrations and $200 vouchers to encourage children into sport – and by delivering a $564 million surplus for 2023-24 – Queensland Labor hopes it can buy a fourth term from financially struggling voters.

But will it really turn Labor’s electoral tide? Public opinion polls since Miles succeeded Annastacia Palaszczuk as premier last December suggest not. In the most recently published poll, a February-May Redbridge survey, Labor recorded a 28% primary vote – down 12 points since the 2020 election and only slightly higher than the Bligh Labor government received when decimated in 2012.

Redbridge pegged the Liberal-National Party’s primary vote at 47% – its highest in a decade – for a two-party-preferred split of 57 to 43%. That translates into a 10-point swing. It would mean Labor loses around 24 seats and the LNP easily forms majority government with up to 60 seats in the 93-seat Legislative Assembly.

Worryingly for Labor, the Redbridge data are consistent with earlier Resolve Strategic, YouGov and Newspoll surveys. All reported similar collapses in Labor’s vote since March.

In short, Queensland voters appear to have stopped listening to Miles and are now embracing the moderate, softly spoken LNP leader, David Crisafulli. In a February-May Resolve Strategic poll, he led Miles as preferred premier by 39 points to 28.

Crisafulli, however, is facing his own hurdles. Journalists and voters are demanding policy detail beyond the LNP’s “parenthood” statements about reducing crime. Crisafulli’s judgment is also being questioned for his early support for a Labor budget he had not even seen.

Nonetheless, there has been an unmistakable appetite for change in Queensland since early 2022, when the once-unassailable Palaszczuk government began its sharp descent amid accusations of compromised integrity and, later, of an allegedly “out of touch” and “red carpet” premier. It was that lost political capital underpinning a once-popular premier that, when burdened with cost-of-living and youth-crime crises, forced Palaszczuk from office in December 2023.

Why, then, will Queensland’s arguably most generous budget go unrewarded at the ballot box?

First, governments rarely receive post-budget public opinion bounces. While the Albanese government’s 2024 budget was reasonably well received, a June YouGov poll placed Labor’s primary vote three points lower than in the April survey. It seems voters simply expect governments to be good economic managers – and do not reward them for it.

Second, Miles’ goodies, designed to be delivered before the October 26 poll, will likely see any voter gratitude evaporate long before ballots are cast.

Third, while vehicle registration is almost universal, regular public transport users and first-home buyers are still a minority of voters.

Fourth, current inflation is “sticky”. Until Queensland voters see reductions in rents, home mortgage interest rates, grocery and fuel prices, a few budgetary treats will do little to mollify a financially stressed electorate.

Finally, the government has arguably overreached in its generosity and undermined its credibility as a responsible economic manager. In squandering last year’s $12.3 billion surplus – the largest ever recorded by a state, thanks to massively hiked coal royalties that have pumped $25 billion into state coffers in just two years – the ever-sceptical Queensland voter now appears plainly cynical in framing the budget as a desperate vote-buying exercise.

So will the budget at least improve Prime Minister Anthony Albanese’s fortunes in Queensland? Almost certainly not.

Labor holds just five of Queensland’s 30 federal seats and is unlikely to win more anytime soon. Hemmed in by the deep conservatism of outer-suburban and regional Queensland, Labor, at the height of Albanese’s popularity in 2022, won no seats from the LNP yet lost one to the Greens.

Ultimately, Queenslanders appear to have cast their judgment on the Miles government. They will happily (but not gratefully) grab Labor’s cash, then stroll to the polls and vote LNP in a very decisive swing.

Paul Williams is affiliated with the TJ Ryan Foundation.

– ref. Queensland government splashes the cash around – but it’s unlikely to save it in the October election – tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/232259